Abstract

Keywords

Minerals; social justice; distributive justice; procedural justice; remedial justice; mine-host communities; involvement; benefit accrual; Zimbabwe.

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1 Introduction

Zimbabwe, a landlocked country in Southern Africa, 1

* Stanford Chagadama. LLB (UZ) LLM (Unisa) LLD (NWU). Lecturer, Faculty of Law, University of Zimbabwe (Harare), Zimbabwe. Email schagadama@law.uz.ac.zw. ORCID 0000-0002-6045-5002. This paper is based on an unpublished doctoral thesis by the author titled Host Communities and the Award and Utilisation of Mineral Rights in Zimbabwe (North-West University, Potchefstroom Campus 2023).

** Germarié Viljoen. LLB LLM LLD (NWU). Associate Professor, Faculty of Law, North-West University (Potchefstroom Campus), South Africa. Email: Germarie.Viljoen@nwu.ac.za. ORCiD 0000-0003-2986-6572.

† This work is based on the research supported by the National Research Foundation (NRF) of South Africa and the Dutch Research Council (De Nederlandse Organisatie voor Wetenschappelijk Onderzoek) Project UID 129352. Any opinion, finding, conclusion or recommendation expressed in this contribution is that of the authors.

1 The country shares land borders with Zambia to the north, Mozambique to the east, Botswana to the west and South Africa to the south.

In 2022, Zimbabwe's mining sector experienced a 10% growth 7

7 Chamber of Mines of Zimbabwe 2022 https://chamines.co.zw/assets/uploads/ 2023/application/3bb36313-f1fc-470d-81fe-dd628d9a2694.pdf.

growth of 7.6%, 10

10 Ministry of Finance, Economic Development and Investment Promotion 2023 https://parlzim.gov.zw/download/2024-budget-statement/.

The mining sector in Zimbabwe has seen a surge in foreign capital investment, leading to the development of new large-scale platinum mines by Karo Platinum and Great Dyke Investments. These complement existing production by Zimbabwe Platinum Mines (Zimplats), Mimosa Mining Company and Unki Mines. 12

12 Chamber of Mines of Zimbabwe 2022 https://chamines.co.zw/assets/uploads/ 2023/application/3bb36313-f1fc-470d-81fe-dd628d9a2694.pdf.

Despite its growth, Zimbabwe's mining sector is deeply entwined with a complex historical background marked by colonialism. This legacy is reflected in legal frameworks such as the Mines and Minerals Act 38 of 1961, originally framed to benefit the colonial regime rather than the country's majority black population. This historical backdrop has significantly contributed to ongoing socio-economic challenges, particularly the inability to translate the nation's abundant mineral resources into

tangible benefits for the generality of Zimbabweans, who largely continue to live in poverty. 19

19 For instance, Zimbabwe's former Minister of Finance and Economic Development, Patrick Chinamasa, stated while presenting the country's 2016 National Budget Statement that the nations' diamonds are "a resource that seems to have not benefitted the generality of our people, notwithstanding that the diamond industry has potential to uplift our population. In Botswana, where on average about US$3.2 billion worth of diamonds are produced per year, respective revenues enable every child in the country to receive free education up to the age of 13." See Minister of Finance and Economic Development 2016 https://www.veritaszim.net/sites/veritas _d/files/2016%20%20Budget%20Statement.pdf.

In Zimbabwe mineral extraction often results in mine-host communities 22

22 See Humby 2016 SALJ 316-351 for an exposition of the term “community” in relation to those impacted by mining operations. Also see Heyns 2019 Law and Development Review 561-593.

‘paradox of plenty’ and the ‘resource curse’, 26

26 Langton and Mazel 2003 Journal of Energy and Natural Resources Law 32; Sachs and Warner 2001 European Economic Review 827; Van der Ploeg 2011 Journal of Economic Literature 366.

The extraction of minerals in Zimbabwe, especially when it leaves the mine-host communities in a worse state economically, socially and environmentally, is inherently unfair and unjust. 30

30 The preamble to the Constitution of Zimbabwe Amendment (No 20) Act, 2013 (the Constitution of Zimbabwe) states that the people of Zimbabwe are united by their common desire for freedom, justice and equality and that the people commit themselves to building a just and prosperous nation based on equality and fairness, among other values. Fairness in the award and utilisation of mineral rights in Zimbabwe prescribes that no group of people, surely including mine-host communities, should be made to bear a disproportionate share of the burdens of mineral extraction.

Rather than detailing the specific challenges faced by mine-host communities in Zimbabwe, this article sets out to delve into the concept of

social justice in the context of mineral extraction. It aims to lay the theoretical foundation for unravelling the involvement of mine-host communities in Zimbabwe and their accrual of socio-economic benefits from mineral extraction, and to suggest how it can be built on. This article sets out to dissect those social justice theories that may underlie the involvement in and benefit accrual by mine-host communities from mineral extraction on their lands.

Beginning with an overview of various scholarly interpretations of social justice in association with mine-host community involvement and benefit accrual in mineral extraction, the next section identifies three main theories of social justice, namely distributive, procedural and remedial justice. These theories are crucial for examining mineral extraction on lands inhabited by mine-host communities in Zimbabwe. 33

33 Ebbesson "Introduction" 3 explains that "justice concerns arise in just about any legal context involving health, the environment and the use of natural resources”. Theories of social justice are therefore expressed in various ways and apply to various contexts.

2 Social justice: Mine-host community involvement and benefit accrual

The concept of social justice has been associated with the distribution of socio-economic resources and the well-being of society. 34

34 Miller 1991 British Journal of Political Science 371-391.

that seeks the fair re-distribution of resources, opposes discrimination and injustice in distribution, and seeks the eradication of poverty and socio-economic inequalities. 39

39 UN Department of Economic and Social Affairs Social Justice in an Open World 7-8, 15-16.

From a legal perspective, it is necessary to examine theories of social justice, namely distributive, procedural and remedial justice and their relationship with the involvement in and benefit accrual by mine-host communities from mineral extraction on their lands. Concerns over justice and fairness in the granting and utilisation of mineral rights on lands inhabited by mine-host communities invite a critical evaluation of existing laws and policies. In a legal context, theories of social justice provide a useful standard for evaluating existing or proposed policy and legislative frameworks and guide the reform process. Theories of social justice help to either legitimise or criticise existing policies and laws. 41

41 Millon 1990 Duke LJ 241 discusses the role of the theories of corporation and the author affirms that such theories assist when it comes to justifying certain legislative or judicial interventions through new legal doctrines.

correcting past injustices and ensuring equal access to national resources 45

45 See justifications for distributive and remedial legislative measures to empower previously disadvantaged South Africans in ss 9(2), 25(6)(7)(8), 29(2), 195(1)(i) and 217(2)(b) of the Constitution of the Republic of South Africa, 1996 (the Constitution of South Africa); preamble and ss 1, 2(d)(i) and 104 of the Mineral and Petroleum Resources Development Act 28 of 2002; ss 2(j), 18(5) and 31(1) of the Marine Living Resources Act 18 of 1998; preamble and chs 4 and 5 of the Promotion of Equality and Prevention of Unfair Discrimination Act 4 of 2000. The Constitutional Court of South Africa affirmed the commitment to social justice in several cases including Government of the Republic of South Africa v Grootboom 2001 SA 46 (CC) para 1; Soobramoney v Minister of Health, Kwazulu-Natal 1997 12 BCLR 1691 (CC) paras 8-9; City of Johanesburg Metropolitan Municipality v Blue Moonlight Properties Ltd 39 (Pty) 2012 2 BCRL 150 (CC) para 2.

Aristotle 51

51 Aristotle Nicomachean Ethics V 1131a 1.

injustices. 52

52 Aristotle Nicomachean Ethics V 1131a 1.

3 The notion of distributive justice

Aristotle 56

56 Aristotle Nicomachean Ethics V 267.

Three different principles of distributive justice, namely utilitarianism, libertarianism and egalitarianism, seek to explain when the approach to be adopted for the purposes of the distribution of resources may be regarded as just or equitable. Shelton, however, warns that the choice of the appropriate principle to determine a just or equitable allocation of resources is highly contested. 58

58 Shelton "Describing the Elephant" 59 and 69 explains that there is contestation regarding "whether decisions should be based on need, capacity, prior entitlement …, the greatest good for the greatest number, or strict equality of treatment". Marx Critique of the Gotha Program 87 recommends the distribution of resources according to needs, thus "from each according to his abilities, to each according to his needs". Nielsen Equality and Liberty 62-63 sets out his egalitarian distributive principle of justice as follows: "[A]fter provisions are made for common social

distributive justice. For instance, in the egalitarian perspective of distributive justice some authors advocate strict egalitarianism 59

59 Strict egalitarians argue that members of a society should be allocated equal amounts of resources based on the argument that all people are morally equal and only strict equality can lead to the full realisation of the equal moral worth of human beings. Leading advocates of strict egalitarianism include Kai Nielsen and Amartya Sen.

3.1 The utilitarian perspective of distributive justice

The origins of utilitarianism can be traced to Jeremy Bentham, an English legal reformer. 62

62 Carter Philosophical Foundations of Property Rights 51 cites Bentham as the founder of utilitarianism.

which produces the greatest amount of utility (or happiness) for the greatest number of people. 64

64 Bilchitz 2008 ESR Review 10.

Utilitarians 65

65 See Bentham Introduction to the Principles of Morals; Mill Utilitarianism; Sidgwick Methods of Ethics; Singer Expanding Circle.

Utilitarianism significantly influences the manner in which benefits and resources are currently distributed in society. 73

73 Taylor "Social Justice" 18.

Rights v The Republic of Kenya, 75

75 African Commission of Human and Peoples' Rights v The Republic of Kenya App No 006/2012 (26 May 2017) (the Ogiek case) para 150.

The utilitarian perspective of distributive justice has therefore rightly been subjected to criticism. Rawls 77

77 Rawls Theory of Justice 27, 177.

by the long-term benefits to be enjoyed by the majority of citizens through the national economic growth that will occur if the mineral revenue is used prudently. Therefore, when the matter is considered from the utilitarian perspective, no injustice arises from entering the lands inhabited by mine-host communities to extract minerals, even if it harms those communities, as long as this maximises the happiness of the greater number of citizens.

Ideally, mine-host communities should be put in a better than or equal position with other citizens and mining companies when it comes to the distribution of costs and benefits, since they bear the greater brunt of the inconveniences of mineral extraction on the lands they inhabit. In the same vein, the common good 81

81 See Rawls Theory of Justice 233, who considers the common good as those conditions and objectives that are to everyone's advantage.

3.2 The egalitarian perspective of distributive justice

The egalitarian school of thought disputes that a society with social and economic inequalities can be just. 84

84 Van Soest 1994 Social Work 714.

Rawls 87

87 Rawls Theory of Justice.

In Dworkin's view, the appropriate measure of social justice is the equal distribution of resources. 92

92 Dworkin 1981 Philosophy and Public Affairs 283-345 argues that equality of resources is the distributive expression of the "equal moral worth of persons".

who should decide for themselves how they want to live their lives and how best to use their resources to attain that kind of life. 95

95 Liebenberg 2015 SALJ 421 adds that equal concern requires "sensitivity to distinct circumstances and needs of groups in their particular social and historical context".

The principle of equal concern, as explained by Dworkin, is sensitive to the plight of mine-host communities, that often endure extreme poverty despite the rich mineral resources being exploited by outsiders. Following the work of Dworkin an egalitarian approach would therefore prescribe that government, through legislative instruments and policy measures, should be concerned with the plight of mine-host communities just as much as it is concerned about national economic growth or the well-being of the generality of its citizens. The government may therefore have to allocate more resources to mine-host communities to compensate them for their losses or may have to offer them something to counterbalance their vulnerability to the socio-economic and environmental impacts of mineral extraction.

According to Rawls' principles of justice, a distribution will be just if (i) it accords equal liberty rights to everyone, 96

96 Rawls Justice as Fairness 42-43. This is an equal liberty principle. See s 56(1)(2) of the Constitution of Zimbabwe and s 9(1)(2) of the Constitution of South Africa.

This approach ensures that all people have equal access to basic liberties and benefits. Rawls therefore argues for a society where members share the benefits and burdens of achieving their common well-being and enjoy principles that guide members of society to act in a fair and equitable manner. Naturally, this reasoning may well offer favourable outcomes for mine-host communities, who are often the least advantaged in the context of mineral extraction on their lands.

Rawls has been criticised for overstressing distribution as the overarching principle of justice. 103

103 Schlosberg 2004 Environmental Politics 517; Young Justice and the Politics of Difference 1; Miller Principles of Social Justice 1, 232.

3.3 The libertarian perspective of distributive justice

Dissatisfied with both the utilitarian and the egalitarian concepts of distributive justice, Nozick 105

105 Nozick Anarchy, State and Utopia.

In the context of mineral extraction, a libertarian approach would support the inequality of the burdens and benefits between mining companies and mine-host communities if the communities let go of their lands and the minerals thereon through free, prior and informed consent (FPIC). The mine-host communities would not be considered to have suffered any harm if they knowingly and voluntarily handed over their right to natural resources and wealth to mining corporations. To justify his approach, Nozick organises his theory into two ideas, which he refers to as justice in acquisition and justice in transfer. 110

110 Nozick Anarchy, State and Utopia 150-151. Nozick puts forward the idea of the rectification of injustice to remedy injustices arising from the acquisition of possessions and this idea will be discussed in detail below under the rubric of remedial justice.

3.3.1 The notion of justice in acquisition

The idea of justice in acquisition is based on an initial acquisition of holdings, namely, resources or wealth, and focusses on how people obtain them. 111

111 Nozick Anarchy, State and Utopia 150-151.

Whatsoever then he removes out of the state that nature have provided, and left in, he hath mixed his labour with, and joined to it something that is his own, and thereby makes it his property. It being by him removed from the common

state of nature hath placed it in, it hath by this labour something annexed to it, that excludes the common right of other men: for this labour being the unquestionable property of the labourer, no man but he can have a right to what that is once joined to, at least where there is enough, and as good, left in common for others.

The extraction of minerals is an act of mixing one's labour, that is, capital and operating expenditure, with the mineral deposit, and if only this part of Locke's statement is applied to the context of mineral extraction, mining companies would have exclusive entitlement to the benefits of mineral extraction. Mine-host communities would have no claim to the minerals by the mere fact of having historically inhabited the land bearing minerals, since they would not have mixed their labour with the minerals. However, Locke also suggested that "enough and as good for others" must remain for justice to exist. 117

117 Locke Second Treatise of Government 17, 27.

The notion of justice in acquisition has been criticised by Palmer, 120

120 Palmer Looking at Philosophy 358.

3.3.2 The notion of justice in transfer

The idea of justice in transfer focusses on the way a person can acquire holdings from another. Possessions that are justly held, that is, without force, theft or fraud, among other ills, can be freely transferred. 124

124 Locke Second Treatise on Government 46.

Nozick interprets Locke's argument to mean that, if the arrangement, that is, the transfer of resources and wealth, was voluntary and not forced, the transfer is just. 126

126 Locke Second Treatise on Government 46.

The process in which justice is attained is also important when it comes to the notion of social justice. Unjust processes violate social justice, while just processes aid the attainment of social justice. This thinking is encapsulated in the notion of procedural justice discussed below as an element of social justice.

4 Procedural justice

According to Aristotle procedural justice entails a "status wherein individuals have an equal share in ruling and being ruled". 130

130 Heyman 1992 Iowa L Rev 851.

Scholars 134

134 Solum 2004 S Cal L Rev 228; Rawls Theory of Justice 73-75; Kuehn 2000 Env't L Rep 10692 sought to determine whether a "fair process can negate a claim that a disproportionate outcome is unjust". Hart Concept of Law 167 argues that a disparate distribution of benefits may be considered just if impartial attention was given to competing claims to the benefits. Greenberg 1993 4 Risk: Health Safety and Environment 236 contends that, if appropriate criteria are applied to every area, then the results of the sitting decision are fair even if they disproportionately burden some groups and benefit others.

According to Rawls, 137

137 Rawls Theory of Justice 73-75. Rawls explains that, where perfect procedural justice reigns, "there is an independent criterion of what is a fair division, a criterion defined separately from and prior to the procedure which is to be followed. And … it is possible to devise a procedure that is sure to give that desired outcome". In this case

outcome of the procedure, and (ii) a procedure that guarantees achieving that fair outcome. A procedure is perfect when people know that which is just and if they can craft a procedure that guarantees the attainment of that result. 138

138 Robinson and Reeser Ethical Decision-Making 9.

Although in the case of imperfect procedural justice an independent criterion for fairness of outcomes exists, Rawls asserts that no procedure guarantees a fair result. 139

139 Sadurski 2006 OJLS 397-399.

Pure procedural justice entails situations where there is no criterion for that which constitutes a just outcome other than the procedure itself. 144

144 Rawls Theory of Justice 86.

properly followed, makes it likely that the outcome will be correct or fair. 145

145 Rawls Theory of Justice 86.

Scholars 149

149 Solum 2004 S Cal L Rev 191; Fraser 2000 New Left Review 107-120; Liebenberg 2015 SALJ 427-428; Fraser "Social Justice" 30.

political and socio-economic decision-making. This is because all people have a right to participate as equals in society, 152

152 Liebenberg 2015 SALJ 427-428.

5 Remedial justice

In the context of mineral extraction, remedial justice would entail the right of mine-host communities to redress for (i) lands and minerals lost to mining companies without consultation and their consent, and (ii) damage, including to health, suffered due to the adverse impacts of mineral extraction. In these circumstances the theory of remedial justice, which seeks to ensure redress for wrongs suffered through the provision of appropriate remedies, becomes invaluable. 156

156 Maguire and Lewis 2012 Macquarie Journal of International and Comparative Environmental Law 24.

example, the provision of compensation may have to be accompanied by an apology 159

159 In African Commission on Human and Peoples' Rights v Republic of Kenya App No 006/2012 (Judgment (Reparations) of 23 June 2022) para 129 the African Court on Human and Peoples' Rights considered the issue of an apology as a remedy. However, the court did not order an apology by the Kenyan government as it determined that the other measures ordered by the court such as the restitution of lands and the recognition of the Ogiek as an indigenous people were sufficient and effective.

Rectificatory justice stems from the work of Aristotle, who considers the role of judges to be that of making parties equal by imposing a penalty on the wrongdoers, especially by taking away from the wrongdoers that which they gained or secured through the wrongful action. 161

161 Maguire and Lewis 2012 Macquarie Journal of International and Comparative Environmental Law 25.

Based on Aristotle's work, Nozick argues that some past injustices are so great that it is necessary to rectify them. 165

165 Nozick Anarchy, State and Utopia 32.

injustice prescribes that property acquired through violation of the rights of others can remain with the current holder only if the prejudiced people have been compensated for their loss. 167

167 Nozick Anarchy, State and Utopia 27, 152-153.

The third form of justice, remedial justice, entails more than just compensation. If compensation alone would suffice, this would mean that once compensation has been paid an otherwise unjust action would be deemed acceptable. 170

170 Kuehn 2000 Env't L Rep 10694.

that is no longer possible, the communities must be compensated 171

171 The case of African Commission on Human and Peoples' Rights v Republic of Kenya App No 006/2012 (Judgment (Reparations) of 23 June 2022) (Ogiek case) paras 42-44, 59, 66 explains that compensation should be commensurate to the prejudice suffered and the court is to exercise its discretion in equity to determine what amounts to fair compensation in cases where the violations occurred over a long time as these are difficult to quantify. In the Ogiek case the African Court of Human and Peoples' Rights agrees with the Permanent Court of International Justice case of The Factory at Chorzow (Germany v Poland) (Merits, Judgment of 13 September 1928) [1928] PCIJ Rep Series A, No 17, 47, which explains that the State responsible for the violation needs to make an effort to "wipe out all the consequences of the illegal act and re-establish the situation which would, in all probability, have existed if that act had not been committed". Regarding whom is to be compensated, the African Court explains in paras 42-43 of the Ogiek case that damages can be claimed by the victims of the violation, their immediate heirs and other close relatives and "subject to certain conditions, groups and communities may be entitled to reparations meant to address collective harm."

Meaningful engagement has been deployed as a remedy at both the national court level using domestic law 173

173 Occupiers of 51 Olivia Road, Berea Township and 197 Main Street, Johannesburg v City of Johannesburg 2005 1 SA 217 (CC).

plight of the affected people could be alleviated by upgrading the buildings to improve the living conditions on the properties. In the final judgement the court linked meaningful engagement to the right to access to adequate housing with the requirement for the involvement of communities in the affairs of local government. 177

177 Section 151(1)(e) of the Constitution of South Africa.

The case of Baleni v Minister of Mineral Resources 178

178 Baleni v Minister of Mineral Resources 2019 2 SA 453 (GP).

Meaningful engagement was also deployed as a remedy in the case of the African Commission on Human and Peoples' Rights v Republic of Kenya (the Ogiek case) 183

183 African Commission on Human and Peoples' Rights v Republic of Kenya App No 006/2012 (Judgment (Reparations) of 23 June 2022) para 117.

disputes centred on mine-host community involvement in and benefit accrual from mineral extraction on their lands.

6 Key findings and concluding remarks

The article has identified three theories of social justice: distributive, procedural and remedial, under which the subject of the involvement and accrual of socio-economic benefits by mine-host communities from mineral extraction on their lands could be discussed and explained. In addition, the article has examined the content of these three theories and established what they entail in the context of mine-host community involvement and benefit accrual from mineral extraction in Zimbabwe. These theories present foundations upon which existing and new policy and legislative frameworks could be evaluated with a view to the reform of the existing policy and legislation.

In the third section, the article examined the question regarding the concept of distributive justice that would ensure the ideal distribution of resources among host communities, mining companies and other citizens. It was established that the distributive justice strand embraces utilitarian, egalitarian and libertarian perspectives. The utilitarian perspective of distributive justice advances the greatest happiness for the greatest number of citizens even if it means that a few must be sacrificed. It was demonstrated that this perspective would legitimise the exploitation of mineral resources by mining companies and the government of Zimbabwe for the benefit of the whole nation even if such exploitation negated the well-being of the mine-host communities. For that reason, utilitarianism was found to be unsatisfactory in relation to the welfare and well-being of mine-host communities in Zimbabwe, as it would not support their involvement and benefit accrual from mineral extraction on their lands. In terms of the libertarian perspective of distributive justice, the article showed that inequalities of resources or wealth are permitted if these are not brought about by prejudicing others and where resources have been acquired by producing something through one's labour or using resources not belonging to anyone else. In this way, libertarianism would legitimise the exploitation of minerals by mining companies on lands inhabited by mine-host communities in Zimbabwe without the communities being involved or accruing benefits if the minerals are adjudged to belong to someone else who is not part of the communities, such as the state. This article therefore confirmed that libertarianism does not support involvement and benefit accrual by mine-host communities from mineral extraction on the lands they inhabit.

The egalitarian perspective of distributive justice prescribes that the government must show equal concern for all its citizens without sacrificing

some for the benefit of others. All citizens are to have an equal distribution of benefits, and inequality is permissible only where it is entertained for the benefit of the least advantaged. Consequently, the egalitarian perspective legitimises the re-distribution of wealth and would ensure that mine-host communities in Zimbabwe are involved and accrue maximal benefits from mineral extraction on their lands, since they would then be viewed as the ones most affected by the mining operations. Significantly, in the context of mineral extraction in Zimbabwe, a just distribution of the costs and rewards of mineral extraction as based on the egalitarian perspective is one in which the mine-host communities would not bear a disproportionate share of the burdens. Instead, they would be accorded socio-economic benefits commensurate with the burdens that they have to bear due to mineral extraction on their lands. The costs and benefits of mineral extraction on their lands would be equalised in this way.

The article also discussed the contribution of the second form of justice, namely procedural justice, to the understanding of the question of mineral extraction on lands inhabited by mine-host communities. It was established that an approach based on pure procedural justice would prescribe effective involvement and participation by Zimbabweans in decision-making on matters affecting them. This would advance the consultation, involvement and participation of mine-host communities in matters centred on mineral extraction on the lands they inhabit.

Lastly, the article assessed the third form of justice, remedial justice, and explained what it brings to mine-host communities in Zimbabwe when faced with mineral extraction on the lands they inhabit. The article established that, where the rights of mine-host communities are violated and their lands taken and exploited without their involvement and accrual of benefits, remedial justice is necessary. Not only does it prescribe the restitution of the lands and resources but it also holds that compensation should be paid for damages caused to mine-host communities.

The goal of this article was to examine and explain theoretical perspectives that may be viewed as underpinning the involvement in and accrual of socio-economic benefits by Zimbabwean mine-host communities from mineral extraction. While finding the principle that determines a just or equitable allocation of resources is difficult, the egalitarian idea of justice connects with the quest for mine-host community involvement in and benefit accrual from mineral extraction on their lands. Such principles should be coupled with just and fair procedures for the consultation and involvement of the affected communities and appropriate remedies to correct unfair distribution.

This article is expected to spur further research centred on mine-host community involvement in and benefit accrual from mineral extraction in Zimbabwe.

This exposition of the concept of social justice and its associated theories extends beyond rectifying the challenges faced by mine-host communities in Zimbabwe. It holds the potential to be applied to other sectors such as industry, agriculture and public infrastructure projects in the water, energy and transport sectors, offering a pathway to enhance social justice in areas historically neglected and disregarded by the colonial powers. Such an application could address long-standing inequities and foster the application of a more equitable framework across various economic sectors.

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List of Abbreviations