Reflections on how to Address the Violations of Human Rights by Extractive Industries in Africa: A Comparative Analysis of Nigeria and South Africa
DOI:
https://doi.org/10.17159/1727-3781/2014/v17i1a2255Keywords:
State’s human rights obligations, transnational companies and human rights, extractive industries, Nigeria and South AfricaAbstract
Transnational companies (TNCs) in general and those operating in the extractive industry sector in particular have an impact on the realisation of human rights. Yet under international human rights law, instruments regulating TNCs’ obligations in terms of human rights are non-binding. Consequently, the state in which TNCs operate remains the only duty bearer of human rights and should ensure that companies under its jurisdiction comply with human rights.
The aim of this article is to examine the extent to which Nigeria and South Africa comply with their obligations to ensure that TNCs in extractive industries operating within their borders promote and respect human rights. Ultimately it is argued that the legal architecture in the countries under study does not satisfactorily shield people from the actions of TNCs.
In an attempt to remedy the situation, it is suggested that a way forward could be constructed on the following pillars: inserting human rights clauses into international trade and investment agreements; raising awareness of and sensitization on the importance of corporate social responsibility as a "profit maximising mechanism"; turning corporate social responsibility into binding human rights obligations; and using international human rights monitoring mechanisms. Though the points made in this article generally engage the human rights impacts of extractive industries in Nigeria and South African, the proposed solutions are generalisable to other societies in which these industries operate.
Downloads
References
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Literature
Aborisade "Imperatives of Justiciability"
Aborisade F "The Imperatives of Justiciability of Socio-economic Rights in Nigeria" Unpublished paper presented at the Workshop on Social Protection and the Decent Work Agenda in the Food, Beverage and Tobacco Industry: Issues Arising (19-20 April 2013 IJebu-Ode, Nigeria)
Acquaviva 2005 Vanderbilt J Transnat'l L
Acquaviva G "Subjects of International Law: A Power‐based Analysis" 2005 Vanderbilt J Transnat'l L 1-52
Adebajo The World Today
Adebajo A "Nigeria and South Africa: Rivalries, Rows and Reconciliations" The World Today 68(7) July 2012 available at http://www.ccr.org.za/
index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=875:pr219&catid=40:press-articles&Itemid=105 accessed 6 February 2014
Addo Human Rights Standards
Addo MK Human Rights Standards and the Responsibility of Transnational Corporations (Kluwer Law International The Hague 1999)
Aguirre 2005 AHRLJ
Aguirre D "Corporate Social Responsibility and human rights law in Africa" 2005 AHRLJ 239-265
Aguirre Human Rights to Development
Aguirre D The Human Rights to Development in a Globalised World (Ashgate Aldershot 2008)
Bagnoli and Watts 2003 JEMS
Bagnoli M and Watts S "Selling to Socially Responsible Consumers: Competition and the Private Provision of Public Goods" 2003 JEMS 419-445
Baron 2001 JEMS
Baron D "Private politics, corporate social responsibility and integrated strategy" 2001 JEMS 7-45
Bennett 2002 JIA
Bennett J "Multinational Corporations, Social Responsibility and Conflict" 2002 JIA 393-410
Bilchitz 2001 SALJ
Bilchitz D "Giving Socio-Economic Rights Teeth: The Minimum Core and its Importance" 2001 SALJ 484-501
Bilchitz 2008 SALJ
Bilchitz D "Corporate law and the Constitution: Towards binding human rights responsibilities for corporations" 2008 SALJ 754-789
Capling and Nossal 2006 Governance
Capling A and Nossal KR "Blowback: Investor-State Dispute Mechanisms in International Trade Agreements" 2006 Governance: An International Journal of Policy, Administration and Institutions 151–172
Cayford 1996 Africa Today
Cayford S "The Ogoni uprising oil human rights, and a democratic alternative in Nigeria" 1996 Africa Today 183-198
Clapham "United Nations Charter-based Protection of Human Rights"
Clapham A "United Nations Charter-based Protection of Human Rights" in Krause C and Scheinin M (ed) International Protection of Human Rights: A Textbook 2nd ed (Abo Akademi University Institute for Human Rights Turku/Abo 2012) 79-104
Currie and De Waal Bill of Rights Handbook
Currie I and De Waal J The Bill of Rights Handbook 5th ed (Juta Cape Town 2005)
De George Business Ethics
De George R Business Ethics 4th ed (Prentice Hall New Jersey 1995)
Deva 2003 Conn J Int'l L
Deva S "Human Rights Violations by Multinational Corporations and International Law: Where to From Here?" 2003 Conn J Int'l L 1-57
Drzewicki "European System"
Drzewicki K "European System for the Promotion and Protection of Human Rights" in Krause C and Scheinin M (ed) International Protection of Human Rights: A Textbook 2nd ed (Abo Akademi University Institute for Human Rights Turku/Abo 2012) 397-422
Emeseh 2009 JSDA
Emeseh E "Social Responsibility in Practice in the oil producing Niger Delta: Assessing Coporation and Government's Actions" 2009 JSDA 113-125
Fauchald and Stigen 2009 Geo Wash Int'l L Rev
Fauchald K and Stigen J "Corporate Responsibility before International Institutions" 2009 Geo Wash Int'l L Rev 1025-1100
Fauconnier and Mathur-Helm 2008 S Afr J Bus Manage
Fauconnier A and Mathur-Helm B "Black economic empowerment in the South African mining industry: A case study of Exxaro Limited" 2008 S Afr J Bus Manage 1-14
Gioia 2003 Organization
Gioia D "Business Organzation as Instrument of Social Responsibility" 2003 Organization 435-438
Gotzmann 2008 Queensland Law Student Review
Gotzmann N "Legal Personality of the Corporation and International Criminal Law: Globalisation, Corporate Human Rights Abuses and the Rome Statute" 2008 Queensland Law Student Review 36-54
Gratzfeld Extractive Industries
Gratzfeld J (ed) Extractive Industries in Arid and Semi-Arid Zones: Environmental Planning and Management (IUCN Gland and Cambridge 2003)
Gutbrod and Hindelang 2006 JWIT
Gutbrod M and Hindelang S "Externalisation of effective legal protection against indirect expropriation: Can the legal order of developing countries live up to the standards required by international investment agreements? A disenchanting comparative analysis" 2006 JWIT 59-83
Hannum "United Nations and Human Rights"
Hannum H "The United Nations and Human Rights" in Krause C and Scheinin M (eds) International Protection of Human Rights: ATextbook 2nd ed (Abo Akademi University Institute for Human Rights Turku/Abo 2012) 61-78
Henkin 1999 Brook J Int'l L
Henkin L "Keynote Address: The Universal Declaration at 50 and the Challenge of Global Markets" 1999 Brook J Int'l L pages?
Holme and Watts Corporate Social Responsibility
Holme P and Watts P Corporate Social Responsibility: Making Good Business Sense (World Business Council on Sustainable Development Geneva 2002)
Ibe 2010 AHRLJ
Ibe S "Implementing economic, social and cultural rights in Nigeria: Challenges and Opportunities" 2010 AHRLJ 197-211
Idemudia 2009 Conflict Security and Development
Idemudia U "The Changing Phase of the Niger Delta conflict: Implications for conflict escalation and return of peace" 2009 Conflict Security and Development 307-331
Ihugba 2012 JPL
Ihugba BU "Compulsory Regulation of CSR: A Case Study of Nigeria" 2012 JPL 68-81
Joseph "Liability of Multinational Corporations"
Joseph S "Liability of Multinational Corporations" in Longford (ed) Social Rights Jurisprudence: Emerging Trends in International and Comparative Law (Cambridge University Press Cambridge 2008) 613-627
Kaeb 2008 Nw J Int'l Hum Rts
Kaeb C "Emerging Issues of Human Rights Responsibility in the Extractive and Manufacturing Industries: Patterns and Liability Risks" 2008 Nw J Int'l Hum Rts 327-353
Kamga 2011 De Jure
Kamga SAD "The Right to Development in the African Human Rights system: The Endorois case" 2011 De Jure 381-391
Kamga and Fombad 2013 JAL
Kamga SAD and Fombad CM "A Critical Review of the Jurisprudence of the African Commission on the Right to Development" 2013 JAL 196-214
Kamga and Haleba 2012 SUR Int'l J Hum Rts
Kamga SAD and Haleba S "Can Economic Growth Translate Into Access to Rights by Institutions in South Africa? Challenges Faced by institutions in South Africa in Ensuring that Growth Leads to Better Living Standard" 2012 SUR Int'l J Hum Rts 82-104
Kinley and Tadaki 2003-04 Va J Int'l L
Kinley D and Tadaki J "From Talk to Walk: The Emergence of Human Rights Responsibilities for Corporations at International Law" 2003-04 Va J Int'l L 931-1024
Kovacevic 2007 Harv Int'l Rev
Kovacevic N "Righting wrongs. Affirmative action in South Africa" 2007 Harv Int'l Rev Spring 6
Lawson "European Convention on Human Rights"
Lawson R "The European Convention on Human Rights" in Krause C and Scheinin M (eds) International Protection of Human Rights: A Textbook 2nd ed (Abo Akademi University Institute for Human Rights Turku/Abo 2012) 423-462
Lewis et al Aboriginal Mining Guide
Lewis M et al Aboriginal Mining Guide: How to Negotiate Lasting Benefits for Your Community (Canadian Centre for Community Renewal Port Alberni 2009)
Liebenberg Socio-economic Rights Adjudication
Liebenberg S Socio-economic Rights Adjudication under a Transformative Constitution (Juta Cape Town 2010)
Lin-Hi Corporate Social Responsibility
Lin-Hi N Corporate Social Responsibility: An Investment in Social Cooperation for Mutual Advantage (Wittenberg Centre for Global Ethics Wittenberg 2008)
Makonese 2013 De Rebus
Makonese M "The SADC Tribunal conundrum - lawyers look to the African Court for direction" 2013 De Rebus Jan/Feb 24 available online http://www.saflii.org/za/journals/DEREBUS/2013/13.html accessed 7 February 2014
Mathlako 2012 The Thinker
Mathlako C "Mining Capital's Drive for Super-profits and its Devastating Consequences" 2012 The Thinker Nov 11-12
Mbeki Architects of Poverty
Mbeki M Architects of Poverty: Why African Capitalism Needs Changing (Picador Johannesburg 2009)
McCorquodale and Fairbrother 1999 Hum Rts Q
McCorquodale R and Fairbrother R "Globalization and Human Rights" 1999 Hum Rts Q 735-766
McWilliams and Siegel 2000 SMJ
McWilliams A and Siegel D "Corporate Social Responsibility and Financial Performance: Correlation or Misspecification? 2000 SMJ 603-609
Meijer and Schuyt 2005 Business & Society
Meijer M and Schuyt T "Corporate Social Performance as a Bottom Line for Consumers" 2005 Business & Society 442-461
Mohr et al 2001 Journal of Consumer Affairs
Mohr LA, Webb DJ and Harris KE "Do consumers expect companies to be socially responsible? The impact of corporate social responsibility on buying behaviour" 2001 Journal of Consumer Affairs 45-72
Musawa Premium Times
Musawa H "The Battle for Supremacy Between Nigeria and South Africa" Premium Times 20 December 2013 available online http://premiumtimesng.com/opinion/151803-battle-supremacy-nigeria-south-africa-hannatu-musawa.html accessed 28 February 2013
NDI Transparency and Accountability
National Democratic Institute for International Affairs Transparency and Accountability in Africa's Extractive Industries (NDI Washington DC 2007)
NEITI Extracting Transparency
Nigeria Extractive Industries Transparency Initiative Extracting Transparency: A Handbook on Transparency and Reform in the Oil, Gas and Solid Minerals Sectors (NEITI Abuja 2005)
Olaleye "Corporate Governance Practices"
Olaleye W "Corporate Governance Practices of South African Mining Companies with Operations in South Africa" in Southern Africa Resource Watch South African Mining Companies in Southern Africa: Corporate Governance and Social Responsibilities (Southern Africa Resource Watch Johannesburg 2010) 19-46
Olowu Integrative Rights-based Approach
Olowu D An Integrative Rights-based Approach to Human Development in Africa (PULP Pretoria 2009)
Orlitzky, Siegel and Waldman 2011 Business & Society
Orlitzky M, Siegel DS and Waldman DA "Strategic Corporate Social Responsibility and Environmental Sustainability" 2011 Business & Society 6-27
Quiroga "Inter-American System"
Quiroga CM "The Inter-American System for the Protection of Human Rights" in Krause C and Scheinin M (eds) International Protection of Human Rights: A Textbook 2nd ed (Abo Akademi University Institute for Human Rights Turku/Abo 2012) 519-549
Ram Business Day
Ram V "Investment Deal? Just Watch It" Business Day 1 January 2014
SAHRC 12th Annual Report 2007/2008
South African Human Rights Commission 12th Annual Report 2007/2008 (SAHRC Pretoria 2008)
Sen and Bhattacharya 2001 Journal of Marketing Research
Sen S and Bhattacharya CB "Does Doing Good Always Lead to Doing Better? Consumer Reactions to Corporate Social Responsibility" 2001 Journal of Marketing Research 225-243
Shelton 1989 Fordham Int'l LJ
Shelton D "Private violence, Public wrongs, and the responsibility of States" 1989 Fordham Int'l LJ 1-34
Shihata Legal Treatment of Foreign Investment
Shihata I Legal Treatment of Foreign Investment: The World Bank Guidelines (Martinus Nijhoff Dordrecht 1993)
Sigam and Garcia Extractive Industries
Sigam C and Garcia L Extractive Industries: Optimizing Value Retention in Host Countries (UNCTAD Geneva 2012)
Singh and Sharma 2013 Merkourios
Singh S and Sharma S "Investor-State Dispute Settlement Mechanism: The Quest for a Workable Roadmap" 2013 Merkourios 88-101
Skogly Extra-national Obligations
Skogly IS Extra-national Obligations Towards Economic and Social Rights (International Council on Human Rights Policy Geneva 2002)
Stormer 2003 Journal of Business Ethics
Stormer F "Making the Shift: Moving from 'Ethics Pays' to an Inter-Systems Model of Business" 2003 Journal of Business Ethics 279-88
Strand 1983 Academy of Management Review
Strand R "A system Paradigm of Organizational Adaptation to the Social Environment" 1983 Academy of Management Review 90-97
Swanson 1995 Academy of Management Review
Swanson C "Addressing a Theoretical Problem by Reorienting the Corporate Social Performance Model" 1995 Academy of Management Review 43-64
UNCTAD World Investment Report
United Nations Conference on Trade and Development World Investment Report: Transnational Corporations, Extractive Industries and Development (UNCTAD Geneva 2007)
Viljoen International Human Rights Law
Viljoen F International Human Rights Law in Africa 2nd ed (Oxford University Press Oxford 2012)
Weber and Marley 2012 Business & Society
Weber J and Marley KA "In Search of Stakeholder Salience: Exploring Corporate Social and Sustainability Reports" 2012 Business & Society 626-649
Case law
Abacha v Fawehinmi 2000 6 NWLR (Pt 600) 228
Adewole v Alhaji Jakande 1981 1 NCLR 281
Adewole v Governor of Lagos State 1981 1 NCLR 262
AG Lagos State v AG Fedration 2003 15 NWLR (Pt 842) 113
Aguas Provinciales de Santa Fe S.A, Suez, Sociedad de Aguas de Barcelona SA, and Inter Aguas Servicios Integrales del Agua SA v The Argentine Republic (ICSID) case number ARB/03/17 of 17 March 2006
Alexkor Ltd and the South African Government v the Richtersveld Community 2004 5 SA 460 (CC)
Archbishop Okogie v The Attorney-General of Lagos State 1981 1 NCLR 218
Attorney General of Ondo State v Attorney General of the Federation 2002 FWLR (Pt 111) 1972
Awas Tingni v Nicaragua (Inter-Am Ct HR) judgment of 31 August 2001
Badejo v Federal Ministry of Education 1990 LRC (Const) 735 (Nigeria Court of Appeal, Lagos)
Bowoto v Chevron Texaco Corp 312 F Supp 2d 1229, 1233 (ND Cal 2004)
Federal Republic of Nigeria v Anache 2004 14 WRN 1 (Nigeria)
Francis Coralie v Union Territory of India 1981 1 SCC 608
Khumalo v Holomisa 2002 5 SA 401 (CC)
Lopez Ostra v Spain 1995 20 EHRR 277
Lubicon Lake Band v Canada Communication No 167/1984 (26 March 1990), UN Doc Supp No 40 (A/45/40) (1990)
Mohini Jain v State of Karnataka 1992 AIR SC 1858
National Rivers Authority v Alfred ME Homes 1994 CLR 760
Olafisoye v Federal Republic of Nigeria 2005 51 WRN 52 (SC)
Piero Foresti, Lauro de Carli v Republic of South Africa (ICSID) case number ARB(AF)/07/1
SERAC v Nigeria 2001 AHRLR 60 (ACHPR)
SERAP v Federal Republic of Nigeria & Universal Basic Education Commission (ECOWAS) case number ECW/CCJ/APP/0808 of 27 October 2009
The Kichwa Peoples of the Sarayaku Communities and its Members v Ecuador Inter-Am Ct HR petition number 167/03, report number 62/04 of 13 October 2004
Uzouku v Ezeonu II 1991 6 NWLR (Pt 200)
Velasquez Rodriguez Case Inter-Am Ct HR (Ser C) No 4 (1988) Judgment of 29 July 29 1988
Legislation
Argentina
Argentina Law 25, 561 (Ley de Emergencia Publica y de Reforma del Regimen Cambiario) of 6 January 2002
Nigeria
African Charter on Human and People's Rights (Ratification and Enforcement) Act, CAP A9, LFN 2004
African Charter on Human and People's Rights (Ratification and Enforcement) Act, CAP 10, LFN 1990
Child's Rights Act of 2003
Compulsory, Free Universal Basic Education Act of 2004
Constitution of Nigeria of 1999
Criminal Code, CAP C38, LFN 2004
Environmental Impact Assessment Act, CAP E12, LFN 2004
Harmful Waste (Special Criminal Provisions) Act, CAP H1, LFN 2004
Minerals Oil (Safety) Regulation of 1963
National Environmental Standards and Regulations Enforcement Agency Act of 2007
National Oil Spill Detection and Response Agency Act of 2006
Nigeria Extractive Industries Transparency Initiative (NEITI) Act of 2007
Nigeria National Petroleum Corporation (NNPC) Act of 1977
Oil Pipeline Act of 1956
Petroleum (Drilling and Production) Regulation of 1965
Petroleum (Drilling and Production) Regulation of 1969
South Africa
Companies Act 61 of 1973
Constitution of the Republic of South Africa, 1996
Mining and Petroleum Resources Development Act 28 of 2002
Restitution of the Land Rights Act 22 of 1994
United Kingdom
Companies Act of 2006
Government publications
Gen N 112 in GG 29617 of 9 February 2007 (Codes of Good Practice on Black Economic Empowerment)
Gen N 1087 in GG 36995 of 1 November 2013 (Promotion and Protection of Investment Bill)
Mining Charter of 2004
International instruments
African Charter on Human and Peoples' Rights (1981)
American Convention on Human Rights (1969)
CESCR General Comment No 14: The Right to Highest Attainable Standard of Health UN Doc E/C 12/2000/4
CESCR General Comment No 15: The Right to Water UN Doc E/C 12/2002/11
Convention on the Settlement of Investment Disputes between States and Nationals of Other States (1965)
ILO Tripartite Declaration of Principles Concerning Multinational Enterprises and Social Policy Reform (1977)
International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights (1966)
International Covenant on Economic Social and Cultural Rights (1966)
Maastricht Guidelines on Violations of the International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights (1997)
OECD Guidelines for Multinational Enterprises (1976)
Report of the Special Representative of the Secretary-General on the Issue of Human Rights and Transnational Corporations and other Business Enterprises UN Doc A/HRC/4/035 (2007)
UN Charter on Economic Rights and Duties of the States (1974)
UN Global Compact (2000)
UN Norms on the Responsibilities of Transnational Corporations and Other Business Enterprises with Regard to Human Rights (2003)
UN "Protect, Respect and Remedy" Framework (2011) (Ruggie Framework)
Universal Declaration on Human Rights (1948)
Internet sources
Africa Progress Panel 2013 http://www.africaprogresspanel.org/wp-content/uploads/2013/08/2013_APR_Equity_in_Extractives_25062013_ENG_HR.pdf
Africa Progress Panel 2013 Equity in Extractives Stewarding Africa's Natural Resources for All http://www.africaprogresspanel.org/wp-content/uploads/2013/08/2013_APR_Equity_in_Extractives_25062013_ENG_HR.pdf accessed 6 February 2014
Amnesty International 2005 http://www.amnesty.org/en/library/
asset/AFR44/022/2005/en/63b716d6-d49d-11dd-8a23-d58a49c0d652/
afr440222005en.pdf
Amnesty International 2005 Ten Years On: Injustice and Violence Haunt the Niger Delta http://www.amnesty.org/en/library/asset/AFR44/022/2005/
en/63b716d6-d49d-11dd-8a23-d58a49c0d652/afr440222005en.pdf accessed 6 September 2013
Bench Marks Foundation 2008 http://www.bench-marks.org.za/policy_gap_2.htm
Bench Marks Foundation 2008 Review of the Corporate Social Responsibility Programmes of the Platinum, Coal, Gold and Uranium Mining Sectors in South Africa: Policy Gap 2 http://www.bench-marks.org.za/policy_gap_2.htm accessed 6 February 2014
Bench Marks Foundation 2013 http://www.bench-marks.org.za/
press/lonmin_report_print.pdf
Bench Marks Foundation 2013 Coping with Unsustainability: Policy Gap 7 - Lonmin 2003-2012 http://www.bench-marks.org.za/press/lonmin_report_
print.pdf accessed 6 February 2014
C4C 2010 http://www.nigerdeltabudget.org/Laws%20and%20Policies%20in%20
Nigeria%27s%20Extractive%20Industries.pdf
Coalition for Change 2010 Existing Laws and Policies in the Nigerian Extractive Industries http://www.nigerdeltabudget.org/Laws%20and%20Policies%
in%20Nigeria%27s%20Extractive%20Industries.pdf accessed 6 September 2013
Capel 2012 http://www.bizcommunity.com/Article/196/558/72447.html
Capel J 2012 Aurora Miners Treated Inhumanely, Human Rights Violated http://www.bizcommunity.com/Article/196/558/72447.html accessed 6 February 2014
CommDev 2012 http://commdev.org/opportunities-and-challenges-extractive-industries
CommDev 2012 Opportunities and Challenges of Extractive Industries http://commdev.org/opportunities-and-challenges-extractive-industries accessed 6 February 2014
De Waal 2012 http://www.dailymaverick.co.za/article/2012-08-23-marikana-what-really-happened-we-may-never-know
De Waal M 2012 Marikana: What Really Happened? We May Never Know http://www.dailymaverick.co.za/article/2012-08-23-marikana-what-really-happened-we-may-never-know accessed 29 March 2013
Democracy Center 2008 http://www.democracyctr.org/bolivia/investigations/water/
Democracy Center 2008 Water Balloon Wars http://www.democracyctr.org
/bolivia/investigations/water/ accessed 8 February 2014
DME 2004 http://www.dme.gov.za/minerals/mining_charter.stm5
Department of Minerals and Energy 2004 South African Mining Charter http://www.dme.gov.za/minerals/mining_charter.stm5 accessed 4 September 2013
FARLEX 2012 http://financial-dictionary.thefreedictionary.com/Investment+
Agreement
FARLEX 2012 Investment Agreement http://financial-dictionary.thefreedictionary.com/Investment+Agreement accessed 16 February 2013
Gond and Matten 2007 http://www.nottingham.ac.uk/business/ICCSR/
research.php?action=single&id=33
Gond J-P and Matten D 2007 Rethinking the Business-society Interface: Beyond the Functionalist Trap http://www.nottingham.ac.uk/business/ICCSR/
research.php?action=single&id=33 accessed 16 February 2013
Human Rights Watch 1999 http://www.hrw.org/reports/1999/nigeria/nigeria
Human Rights Watch 1999 The Price of Oil: Corporate Responsibility and Human Rights Violations in Nigeria's Oil Producing Communities http://www.hrw.org/reports/1999/nigeria/nigeria0199.pdf accessed 6 September 2013
ICHRP 2002 http://www.ichrp.org/files/reports/7/107_report_en.pdf
International Council on Human Rights Policy 2002 Beyond Voluntarism: Human Rights and the Developing Legal Obligations of Companies http://www.ichrp.org/files/reports/7/107_report_en.pdf accessed 6 February 2014
King Committee 2002 https://www.saica.co.za/Portals/0/documents/executive
_summary_king11.pdf
King Committee on Corporate Governance 2002 Executive Summanry of the King Report 2002 https://www.saica.co.za/Portals/0/documents/executive
_summary_king11.pdf accessed use 29 March 2013
Naidoo 2012 http://thinkafricapress.com/south-africa/marikana-massacre-wake-call-south-africas-leaders
Naidoo J 2012 Marikana Massacre: A Sign of Leadership Failure on All Sides http://thinkafricapress.com/south-africa/marikana-massacre-wake-call-south-africas-leaders accessed 6 September 2013
OECD 2006 http://www.oecd.org/china/36052284.pdf
Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development 2006 Improving the System of Investor State Dispute Settlement: An Overview http://www.oecd.org/china/36052284.pdf accessed 23 March 2013
OECD 2008 http://www.oecd.org/newsroom/40556222.pdf
Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development 2008 Annual Report http://www.oecd.org/newsroom/40556222.pdf accessed 8 February 2014
Pyagbara date unknown http://www.refworld.org/pdfid/469cbfce0.pdf
Pyagbara LS date unknown The Ogoni of Nigeria: Oil and Exploitation http://www.refworld.org/pdfid/469cbfce0.pdf accessed 8 February 2014
Uranium Network date unknown http://www.uranium-network.org/index.php/
component/content/article?id=259
Uranium Network date unknown Background Information on Uranium One's Operations at Dominion Reefs http://www.uranium-network.org/
index.php/component/content/article?id=259 accessed 6 February 2014
Published
Issue
Section
License
Copyright (c) 2017 Serges Djoyou Kamga, Ogehcukwu O Ajoku
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License.
.png){kind=spacer}