Law, the Laws of Nature and Ecosystem Energy Services: A Case of wilful Blindness
DOI:
https://doi.org/10.17159/1727-3781/2013/v16i2a2344Keywords:
Ecosystem services, ecosystem energy services, sustainable energy, energy law, energy policy, climate change, fossil fuels, global warming, market failure, environmental externalities, energy subsidies, ecosystem services, ecological economics, complex systems, renewable energy, energy efficiencyAbstract
Ecosystems services include the collection, concentration, and storage of solar energy as fossil fuels (e.g., coal, petroleum, and natural gas). These concentrated forms of energy were produced by ancient ecosystem services. However, our legal and economic systems fail to recognise the value of the ecosystem service subsidies embedded in fossil fuels. This ecosystem services price subsidy causes overuse and waste of fossil fuels in the free market: fossil fuels are consumed more quickly than they can be replaced by ecosystem services and in far larger quantities than they would be if the price of fossil fuels included the cost of solar energy collection, concentration and manufacturing of raw fossil fuels. Moreover, burning fossil fuels produces enormous environmental, human health and welfare costs and damage.
Virtually no legal literature on ecosystem services, sustainable development, or sustainable energy, considers fossil fuels in this context. Without understanding stored energy as an ecosystem service, we cannot reasonably expect to manage our fossil fuel energy resources sustainably. International and domestic energy law and policy systems generally ignore this feature of fossil fuel energy, a blind spot that explains why reducing greenhouse gas emissions from fossil fuels is fundamentally a political challenge. This paper will use new understandings emerging from the field of complex systems to critique existing legal decision-making models that do not adequately account for energy ecosystem services in policy design, resource allocation and project approvals. The paper proposes a new "least-social-cost" decision-making legal structure that includes ecosystem energy services.
Downloads
References
Bibliography
Ackerman and Heizerling Priceless
Ackerman F and Heizerling L Priceless: On Knowing the Price of Everything and the Value of Nothing (New Press New York NY 2004)
Ahmed, Serafy and Lutz (eds) Environmental Accounting
Ahmed YJ, El Serafy S and Lutz E (eds) Environmental Accounting for Sustainability (World Bank Washington DC 1989)
Amey "Gold Recycling”
Amey EB "Gold Recycling in the United States in 1998” in Sibley SF (ed) Flow Studies for Recycling Metal Commodities in the United States (US Geological Survey Reston VA 2004) A1-A8
Barnosky et al 2012 Nature
Barnosky AD et al "Review: Approaching a State Shift in Earth’s Biosphere" 2012 Nature 52-58
Bederman "International Law Frameworks"
Bederman DJ "International Law Frameworks" in Weston BH et al International Law and World Order 4th ed (Thomson West St Paul MN 2006)
Bland 1986 Harv Envtl L Rev
Bland PF "Problems of Price and Transportation: Two Proposals to Encourage Competition from Alternative Energy Resources" 1986 Harv Envtl L Rev 345-416
Bosselman et al Energy, Economics and the Environment
Bosselman F et al Energy, Economics and the Environment 3rd ed (Foundation Press New York NY 2010)
Boumans et al 2002 Ecological Economics
Boumans R et al "Modeling the dynamics of the integrated earth system and the value of global ecosystem services using the GUMBO model" 2002 Ecological Economics 529-560
Boyd and Banzhaf What are Ecosystem Services?
Boyd J and Banzhaf S What are Ecosystem Services? The Need for Standardized Environmental Accounting Units (Resources for the Future Washington DC 2006)
Costanza et al 1997 Nature
Costanza R et al "The value of the world’s ecosystem services and natural capital" 1997 Nature 253-260
Costanza et al Introduction to Ecological Economics
Costanza R et al An Introduction to Ecological Economics (CRC Press Boca Raton Fl 1997)
Daily "Introduction"
Daily GC "Introduction: What are Ecosystem Services" in Daily GC (ed) Nature’s Services: Societal Dependence on Natural Systems (Island Press Washington DC 1997) 1-10
Daly Steady State Economics
Daly HE Steady State Economics: With New Essays 2nd ed (Island Press Washington DC 1991)
Denman et al "Couplings between Changes in the Climate System"
Denman KL et al "Couplings between Changes in the Climate System and Biogeochemistry" in Solomon S et al (eds) Climate Change 2007: The Physical Scientific Basis (Cambridge University Press Cambridge 2007) 511-539
Dernbach and Koplow 2001 Ann Rev Energy & Env’t
Dernbach JC and Koplow D "Federal Fossil Fuel Subsidies and Greenhouse Gas Emissions: A Case Study of Increasing Transparency for Fiscal Policy" 2001 Ann Rev Energy & Env’t 361-389
Dworkin et al "Energy Transmission"
Dworkin M et al "Energy Transmission and Storage" in Gerrard MD (ed) The Law of Clean Energy: Efficiency and Renewables (American Bar Association Chicago Ill 2011) 531-554
Forster et al "Changes in Atmospheric Constituents"
Forster P et al "Changes in Atmospheric Constituents and in Radiative Forcing" in Solomon S et al (eds) Climate Change 2007: The Physical Scientific Basis (Cambridge University Press Cambridge 2007) 131-143
Fox-Penner Smart Power
Fox-Penner P Smart Power: Climate Change, the Smart Grid and the Future of Electric Utilities (Island Press Washington DC 2010)
Friedman New York Times
Friedman TL '"Pass the Books. Hold the Oil"' New York Times 11 March 2012 11
Gaines 2006 Wm & Mary Envtl L & Pol’y Rev
Gaines SE "Sustainable Development and National Security" 2006 Wm & Mary Envtl L & Pol’y Rev 321-370
Georgescu-Roegen Entropy Law
Georgescu-Roegen N The Entropy Law and Economic Progress (Harvard Univ Press Cambridge MA 1971)
Gerrard "Introduction and Overview"
Gerrard MB "Introduction and Overview" in Gerrard MB (ed) The Law of Clean Energy: Efficiency and Renewables (American Bar Association Chicago Ill 2011)
Gibbons and Chandler Energy
Gibbons JH and Chandler WU Energy: The Conservation Revolution (Plenum Press New York NY 1981)
Goldemberg "Development and Energy"
Goldemberg J "Development and Energy" in Bradbrook AJ and Ottinger RL (eds) Energy Law and Sustainable Development (IUCN Gland 2003) 1-2
Goldemberg et al (eds) World Energy Assessment
Goldemberg J et al (eds) World Energy Assessment: Energy and the Challenge of Sustainability (United Nations Development Programme New York NY 2000)
Goldemberg et al Energy for a Sustainable World
Goldemberg J et al Energy for a Sustainable World (Wiley Eastern New Delhi 1988)
Gómez-Baggethun et al 2009 Ecological Economics
Gómez-Baggethun E et al "The history of ecosystem services in economic theory and practice: From early notions to markets and payment systems" 2009 Ecological Economics 1209-1218
Goodstein Out of Gas
Goodstein D Out of Gas: The End of the Age of Oil (WW Norton New York NY 2004)
Hammond 2004 Energy Policy
Hammond GP "Towards sustainability: energy efficiency, thermodynamic analysis, and the 'two cultures'" 2004 Energy Policy 1789-1798
Hansen 2008 OASJ
Hansen J "Target Atmosphere for CO2: Where Should Humanity Aim" 2008 OASJ 217-231
Hanson et al Corporate Ecosystem Services Review
Hanson C et al The Corporate Ecosystem Services Review: Guidelines for Identifying Business Risks and Opportunities Arising from Ecosystem Change Version 2.0 (World Resources Institute Washington DC 2012)
Hassan, Scoles and Ash (eds) Millennium Ecosystem Assessment
Hassan R, Scoles R and Ash N (eds) Millennium Ecosystem Assessment, Ecosystems and Human Well-being: Current States and Trends (Vol 1) (World Resources Institute Washington DC 2005)
Heal et al 2001 Stan Envtl L J
Heal G et al "Protecting Natural Capital Through Ecosystem Districts" 2001 Stan Envtl L J 333-364
Hecht National Environmental Accounting
Hecht JE National Environmental Accounting: Bridging the Gap between Ecology and Economy (Resources for the Future Washington DC 2005)
Hodas "International Law and Sustainable Energy"
Hodas D "International Law and Sustainable Energy: A Portrait of Failure" in Benidickson J et al (eds) Environmental Law and Sustainability after Rio (Edward Elgar Cheltenham 2011)
Hodas 1998 Widener Law Symposium Journal
Hodas D "The Role of Law in Defining Sustainable Development: NEPA Reconsidered"1998 Widener Law Symposium Journal 1-60
Hubbert "Energy Resources"
Hubbert MK "Energy Resources" in Committee on Resources and Man, National Academy of Sciences (ed) Resources and Man (National Academy of Sciences San Francisco NC 1969) 157-242
Janis Introduction to International Law
Janis MW An Introduction to International Law 3rd ed (Aspen New York NY 1999) 162 (quoting from Grotius H De Jure Belli ac Pacis Libri Tres (Kelsey translation, 1913)
Johansson and Goldemberg "Overview"
Johansson TB and Goldemberg J "Overview and Policy Agenda" in Johansson TB and Goldemberg J (eds) Energy for Sustainable Development: A Policy Agenda (United Nations Development Programme New York NY 2000) 1-25
Kuhn Structure of Scientific Revolutions
Kuhn TS The Structure of Scientific Revolutions (University of Chicago Press Chicago Ill 1966)
Layke Measuring Nature’s Benefits
Layke C Measuring Nature’s Benefits: A Preliminary Roadmap for Improving Ecosystem Service Indicators (WRI Washington DC 2009)
Lewis 2007 Engineering & Science
Lewis NS "Powering the Planet" 2007 Engineering & Science 11-23
Lutz and El Serafy Environmental and Resource Accounting
Lutz E and El Serafy S Environmental and Resource Accounting and the Measurement of Sustainable Income (World Bank Washington DC 1988)
Mäler, Aniyar and Jansson 2008 PNAS
Mäler KG, Aniyar S and Jansson A "Accounting for ecosystem services as a way to understand the requirements for sustainable development" 2008 PNAS 9501-9506
Mansfield and Hickey "Oil"
Mansfield M and Hickey JE Jr "Oil" in Hickey JE Jr et al (eds) Energy Law and Policy for the 21st Century (Rocky Mountain Mineral Law Foundation Denver CO 2000) 7-7—7-8
Margonelli Oil on the Brain
Margonelli L Oil on the Brain: Adventures from the Pump to the Pipeline (Broadway New York NY 2008)
Meadows Thinking in Systems
Meadows DH Thinking in Systems: A Primer (Chelsea Green Pub White River Junction VT 2008)
Millennium Ecosystem Assessment Ecosystems and Human Well-being
Millennium Ecosystem Assessment Ecosystems and Human Well-being: Synthesis (Island Press Washington DC 2005)
Mooney and Ehrlich "Ecosystem Services"
Mooney HA and Ehrlich PR "Ecosystem Services: A Fragmentary History" in Daily GC (ed) Nature’s Services: Societal Dependence on Natural Systems (Island Press Washington DC 1997) 11-19
Muller and Mendelsohn 2009 American Economic Review
Muller NZ and Mendelsohn R "Efficient Pollution Regulation: Getting the Prices Right" 2009 American Economic Review 1714-1739
Nadeau Wealth of Nature
Nadeau RL The Wealth of Nature: How Mainstream Economics has failed the Environment (Columbia University Press New York NY 2003)
National Research Council Valuing Ecosystem Services
National Research Council Valuing Ecosystem Services: Toward Better Environmental Decision-Making (National Academies Press Washington DC 2004)
Odum Environment, Power and Society
Odum HT Environment, Power and Society for the Twenty-First Century: The Hierarchy of Energy (Columbia University Press New York NY 2007)
Ottinger et al Environmental Costs
Ottinger RL et al Environmental Costs of Electricity (Oceana Dobbs Ferry NY 1990)
Percival et al Environmental Regulation
Percival RV et al Environmental Regulation: Law, Science and Policy 6th ed (Aspen New York NY 2009)
Repetto Wasting Assets
Repetto R Wasting Assets: Natural Resources in the National Income Accounts (World Resources Institutes Washington DC 1989)
Robinson "Overview"
Robinson NA "Overview of the Agenda 21 Action Plan" in Robinson NA (ed) Agenda 21: Earth’s Action Plan (Oceana New York NY 1992) xxxvi-xciv
Ruhl and Salzman 2007 J Land Use & Envtl L
Ruhl JB and Salzman J "The Law and Policy Beginnings of Ecosystem Services" 2007J Land Use & Envtl L 157-172
Schrijver "Permanent Sovereignty"
Schrijver N "Permanent Sovereignty over Natural Resources versus the Common Heritage of Mankind" in Hunter D et al International Environmental Law and Policy 3rd ed (Foundation Press New York NY 2007) 486-489
Shulman and Asimov Book of Science and Nature Quotations
Shulman JA and Asimov I Isaac Asimov’s Book of Science and Nature Quotations (Weidenfeld & Nicolson New York NY 1988)
Simpson H "PTA Disbands"
Simpson Homer "The PTA Disbands" episode of The Simpsons (originally aired 16 April 1995)
Solomon et al "Technical Summary"
Solomon S et al "2007: Technical Summary" in Solom S et al Climate Change 2007: The Physical Scientific Basis (Cambridge University Press Cambridge 2007) 23-28
Tomain Ending Dirty Energy Policy
Tomain JP Ending Dirty Energy Policy: Prelude to Climate Change (Cambridge University Press Cambridge 2011)
UNEP TEEB Mainstreaming the Economics of Nature
UNEP TEEB Mainstreaming the Economics of Nature: A Synthesis of the Approach, Conclusions and Recommendations of TEEB (UNEP Geneva 2010)
US Dept of Agriculture Ecological Benefits Assessment Strategic Plan
US Department of Agriculture Farm Service Agency EPA Ecological Benefits Assessment Strategic Plan (EPA-240-R-06-001) (The Department Washington DC 2006)
US Dept of Energy National Algal Biofuels Technology Roadmap
US Department of Energy, Energy Efficiency and Renewable Energy Biomass Program National Algal Biofuels Technology Roadmap (The Department Washington DC 2010)
US EPA Office of Atmospheric Programs Clean Energy-Environmental Guide
US EPA Office of Atmospheric Programs Clean Energy-Environmental Guide to Action: Policies, Best Practices, and Action Steps for States (US EPA Washington DC 2006)
US EPA Science Advisory Board Valuing the Protection
US EPA Science Advisory Board Valuing the Protection of Ecological Systems and Services (EPA-SAB-09-012) (US EPA Washington DC 2009)
Weiss In Fairness to Future Generations
Weiss EB In Fairness to Future Generations: International Law, Common Patrimony and Intergenerational Equity (UN University New York NY 1989)
Weiss et al International Environmental Law
Weiss EB et al International Environmental Law and Policy 2nd ed (Walters Kluwer New York NY 2007)
Weston et al International Law
Weston BH et al International Law and World Order 4th ed (West St Paul Minn 2006)
Williamson and McCormick Energy, Ecosystems and Livelihoods
Williamson L and McCormick N Energy, Ecosystems and Livelihoods: Understanding Linkages in the Face of Climate Change Impacts (IUCN Gland 2008)
World Bank Toward a Green, Clean and Resilient World
World Bank Group Toward a Green, Clean, and Resilient World for All: A World Bank Group Environment Strategy 2012–2022 (World Bank New York NY 2012)
Yergin The Prize
Yergin D The Prize: The Epic Quest for Oil, Money and Power (Simon and Schuster New York NY 1991)
Register of legislation
Consolidated Appropriations Act of 2008 (PL 110-161)
Energy Policy Act of 2005 (PL109-58)
Register of international instruments
Convention on Biodiversity (1992)
Montreal Protocol on Substances that Deplete the Stratospheric Ozone Layer (1987) and its Amendments
Rio Declaration on Environment and Development (1992)
Stockholm Declaration of the United Nations Conference on the Human Environment (1972)
UN Framework Convention on Climate Change (1992)
UN General Assembly Resolution A/RES/65/151 Declaring 2012 the International Year of Sustainable Energy for All (2010)
UN General Assembly Resolution on Permanent Sovereignty over Natural Resources (1962)
Register of cases
Amoco Production Co v Southern Ute Indian Tribe 119 S Ct 1719 (1999)
Carbon County v Union Reserve Coal Co 898 P 2d 690 (Mont 1995)
Keystone Bituminous Coal Ass’n v DeBenedictis 480 US 470 (1987)
Minors Oposa v Secretary of the Department of the Environment and Natural Resources 33 ILM 173 (1994)
Pennsylvania Coal Co v Mahon 260 US 393 (1922)
Waweru v Republic of Kenya (2006)
Register of internet sources
ABA 2008 www.americanbar.org
ABA 2008 House of Delegates Resolution 101: Ecosystems Services (11 Feb 2008) www.americanbar.org/content/dam/aba/directories/policy/2008_my_101.authcheckdam.pdf [date of use 14 Mar 2012]
Athanas and McCormick 2010 www.worldenergy.org
Athanas A and McCormick N 2010 Ecosystem Services for Energy Security (World Energy Congress, Montreal, 14 Sep 2010) www.worldenergy.org/documents/congresspapers/435.pdf [date of use 14 Mar 2012]
Bassham 2012 www.britannica.com
Bassham JA 2012 Photosynthesis Encyclopædia Britannica Online www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/458172/photosynthesis [date of use 20 Feb 2012]
BP 2011 www.bp.com
British Petroleum 2011 BP Statistical Review of World Energy www.bp.com/statisticalreview [date of use 9 Mar 2012]
Hecht 2000 users.rcn.com
Hecht JE 2000 Lessons Learned from Environmental Accounting: Findings from Nine Case Studies users.rcn.com/jhecht2/pubs-and-papers/lessons.envt.acct.pdf [date of use 14 Mar 2012]
Hodas 2007a papers.ssrn.com
Hodas D 2007 Ecosystem Subsidies of Fossil Fuel papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=1117564 [date of use 14 Mar 2012]
Hodas 2007b papers.ssrn.com
Hodas D 2007 Imagining the Unimaginable: Reducing US Greenhouse Gas Emissions by Forty Percentpapers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract
_id=1549726 [date of use 14 Mar 2012]
IEA 2008 www.iea.org
IEA 2008 World Energy Outlook 2008 www.iea.org/publications/freepublications/publication/name,3790,en.html [date of use 14 Mar 2012]
IEA, OECD and World Bank The Scope of Fossil-Fuel Subsidies in 2009 and a Roadmap for Phasing out Fossil-Fuel Subsidies 3 (November 2010) http://www.worldenergyoutlook.org/media/weowebsite/energysubsidies/second_joint_report.pdf [date of use 7 June 2013]
IEA 2012 www.worldenergyoutlook.org
IEA 2012 World Energy Outlook Executive Summary http://www.iea.org/publications/freepublications/publication/English.pdf [date of use 7 June 2013]
IEA 2011 www.iea.org
IEA 2011 Key World Energy Statistics 2011 www.iea.org [date of use 9 Mar 2012]
IEA 2011 www.worldenergyoutlook.org
IEA 2011 Analysis of Fossil Fuel Subsidies www.worldenergyoutlook.org/Files/ff_subsidies_slides.pdf [date of use 9 Mar 2012]
IEA et al 2010 www.worldenergyoutlook.org
IEA et al 2010 Analysis of the Scope of Energy Subsidies and Suggestions for the G-20 Initiative www.worldenergyoutlook.org/docs/G20_Subsidy_Joint_
Report.pdf [date of use 9 Mar 2012]
IEA, OECD and World Bank 2010 www.worldenergyoutlook.org
IEA, OECD and World Bank 2010 The Scope of Fossil-Fuel Subsidies in 2009 and a Roadmap for Phasing-out Fossil Fuel Subsidies www.worldenergyoutlook.org/docs/second_joint_report.pdf [date of use 9 Mar 2012]
Karekezi, Lata and Coelho 2004 www.ren21.net
Karekezi S, Lata K and Coelho ST 2004 Traditional Biomass Energy: Improving its Use and Moving to Modern Energy Use www.ren21.net/Portals/97/documents/Bonn%202004%20-%20TBP/Traditional%20Biomass%20Energy.pdf [date of use 16 Jun 2012]
Laitner et al 2012 www.aceee.org
Laitner JA et al 2012 The Long-Term Energy Efficiency Potential: What the Evidence Suggestswww.aceee.org/sites/default/files/publications/research
reports/e121.pdf [date of use 26 Mar 2012]
Lange, Belle and Kishore 2010 siteresources.worldbank.org
Lange G, Belle A and Kishore S 2010 Valuation of Ecosystem Services in World Bank Group Work
siteresources.worldbank.org/EXTENVSTRATEGY/Resources/6975692-1289855310673/20101215-Valuation-of-Ecosystems-Services.pdf [date of use 26 Mar 2012]
National Commission 2011 www.oilspillcommission.gov
National Commission on the BP 2011 Deepwater Horizon Oil Spill and Offshore Drilling Deep Water the Gulf Oil Disaster and the Future of Offshore Drilling (Report to the President)
www.oilspillcommission.gov/sites/default/files/documents/FinalReportIntro.pdf [date of use 7 Mar 2012]
National Research Council 2010 www.nap.edu
National Research Council 2010 Hidden Costs of Energy: Unpriced Consequences of Energy Production and Use www.nap.edu/catalog.php?record_id=12794 [date of use 7 Mar 2012]
US Dept of Agriculture [Date Unknown] www.ers.usda.gov
US Dept of Agriculture Economic Research Service [Date Unknown] International Macroeconomic Datasetwww.ers.usda.gov/data/.../data/
historicalrealgdpvalues.xls [date of use 11 Mar 2012]
US Dept of Energy [Date Unknown] energy.gov
US Dept of Energy Office of Electricity Delivery and Energy Reliability [Date Unknown] Energy Storage energy.gov/oe/technology-development/energy-storage [date of use 15 Mar 2012]
US Dept of Energy [Date Unknown] www.eia.gov
US Dept of Energy Energy Information Agency [Date Unknown] International Energy Statistics www.eia.gov/cfapps/ipdbproject/iedindex3.cfm?tid
=5&pid=5&aid=2&cid=ww,&syid=2006&eyid=2010&unit=TBPD [date of use 12 Mar 2012]
US Dept of Labor [Date Unknown] www.msha.gov
US Dept of Labor, Mine Safety and Health Administration [Date Unknown] Historical Data on Mine Disasters in the United States www.msha.gov/MSHAINFO/FactSheets/MSHAFCT8.HTMUS [date of use 8 Mar 2012]
US Energy Information Agency 2006-2010 www.eia.gov
US Energy Information Agency 2006-2010 International Energy Statistics www.eia.gov/cfapps/ipdbproject/iedindex3.cfm?tid=5&pid=5&aid=2&cid=ww,&syid=2006&eyid=2010&unit=TBPD [date of use 12 Mar 2012]
US Energy Information Agency 2012 www.eia.gov
US Energy Information Agency 2012 Oil: Crude and Petroleum Products Explained www.eia.gov/energyexplained/index.cfm?page=oil_home [date of use 16 Jun 2012]
US EPA [Date Unknown] www.epa.gov
US EPA Ecosystems Services Research [Date Unknown] www.epa.gov/ecology/ [date of use 14 Mar 2012]
US Nuclear Regulatory Commission [Date Unknown] www.nrc.gov
US Nuclear Regulatory Commission [Date Unknown] Uranium Enrichment www.nrc.gov/materials/fuel-cycle-fac/ur-enrichment.html [date of use 12 Mar 2012]
Vogt 2012 www.sciencedaily.com
Vogt Y 2012 ‘New Insight into Atomic Nuclei may explain how Supernovas formed Elements Crucial to Humankind’ Science Daily (8 May 2012) www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2012/05/120508094346.htm [date of use 16 Jun 2012]
World Bank [Date Unknown] web.worldbank.org
World Bank [Date Unknown] About Us web.worldbank.
org/WBSITE/EXTERNAL/EXTABOUTUS/0,,pagePK:50004410~piPK:36602~theSitePK:29708,00.html [date of use 15 Mar 2012]
World Bank 2009 siteresources.worldbank.org
World Bank Environment Department Sustainable Development Network 2009 The World Bank Group Environmental Strategy Concept Note siteresources.worldbank.org/ENVIRONMENT/Resources/244380-1250028593656/6382907-1252510780845/6428643-1256655379723/6510806-1259170156275/ENV-Strategy-2010-CN-EN.pdf [date of use 15 Mar 2012]
World Bank 2011 web.worldbank.org
World Bank 2011 A New Environmental Strategy for the World Bank Group web.worldbank.org/WBSITE/EXTERNAL/TOPICS/ENVIRONMENT/0,,contentMDK:22276657~pagePK:210058~piPK:210062~theSitePK:244381,00.html [date of use 12 Mar 2011]
WRI [Date Unknown] earthtrends.wri.org
WRI [Date Unknown] Earthtrends earthtrends.wri.org/
searchable_db/index.php?theme=6 [date of use 12 Mar 2012]
WRI 2008 cait.wri.org
World Resources Institute 2008 Climate Analysis Indicators Tool (CAIT) Version 9.0 cait.wri.org/cait.php?page=cumul&mode=view [date of use 6 Mar 2012]
WRI 2008 www.wri.org
WRI 2008 Economic Valuation References www.wri.org/project/valuation-caribbean-reefs/references [date of use 17 Jun 2012]
Published
Issue
Section
License
Copyright (c) 2017 David R Hodas
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License.
.png){kind=spacer}