African Organic Product Standards for the African Continent? Prospects and Limitations
DOI:
https://doi.org/10.17159/1727-3781/2018/v21i0a4308Keywords:
organic agriculture, certification, pan-African organic product standards, private organic standards, national organic regulationAbstract
Organic agriculture is a sustainable agricultural system with high environmental protection and animal welfare. In 2015, the world organic agriculture covered 50.9 million hectares with Oceania as the biggest regional producer with 22.8 million hectares and Africa as the least regional producer (1.7 million hectares). While organic agriculture may not be the only solution for African farming, it aligns with sustainable economic development and does not involve chemical inputs. Whereas there are different private standards, not all African countries have national organic standards and there are no pan-African organic standards. This paper discusses the need to address the proliferation of organic standards as a trade barrier through pan-African organic standards and inspire the development of harmonised domestic standards. It examines the prospects for pan-African organic standards, their limitations and makes recommendations for the making, the contents and implementation of such standards domestically and national measures to support African organic agriculture.
Downloads
References
Literature
Alemanno 2009 ECLJ
Alemanno A "Regulating organic farming in the EU. Balancing Consumer preferences and free movement imperatives" 2009 European Consumer Law Journal 1 83-108
Ayuya et al. 2015 World Development
Ayuya OI, Gido EO, Bett HK, Lagat JK, Kahi AK, Bauer S "Effect of Certified Organic Production Systems on Poverty among Smallholder Farmers: Empirical Evidence from Kenya" 2015 World Development 67 27-37
Azadi and Ho 2010 Biotechnology Advances
Azadi H and Ho P "Genetically modified and organic crops in developing countries: A review of options for food security" 2010 Biotechnology Advances 28 160–168
Bakewell-Stone et al. 2008 International Journal of Journal of Agricultural Sustainability
Bakewell-Stone P, Lieblein G and Francis C "Potential for organic agriculture to sustain livelihoods in Tanzania" 2008 International Journal of Journal of Agricultural Sustainability 6 1 22-36
Bandanaa et al. 2016 Agriculture and Food Security
Joseph Bandanaa J, Egyir IS and Asante I "Cocoa farming households in Ghana consider organic practices as climate smart and livelihoods enhancer" 2016 5 Agriculture and Food Security 29 1-9
Bolwig et al. 2009 World Development
Bolwig S, Gibbon P and Jones S "The Economics of Smallholder Organic Contract Farming in Tropical Africa" 2009 37 World Development 6 1094-1104
Bouagnimbeck 2011 Organic Farming in Africa, Africa Overview
Bouagnimbeck H "Organic Farming in Africa, Africa Overview" in Willer H and Kilcher L (eds) The World of Organic Agriculture. Statistics and Emerging Trends (FiBL, Bonn, 2011) 104-110
Chambers Biosafety of GM Crops in Kenya, Uganda and Tanzania: An Evolving landscape of Regulatory Progress and Retreat
Chambers JA Biosafety of GM Crops in Kenya, Uganda and Tanzania: An Evolving landscape of Regulatory Progress and Retreat (Center for Strategic and International Studies, 2013)
Codex Alimentarius Commission Guidelines for the production, processing, labelling and marketing of organically produced foods
Codex Alimentarius Commission Guidelines for the production, processing, labelling and marketing of organically produced foods Codex CAC/GL 32 – 1999
DAFF Draft National Policy on Organic Production
Department of Agriculture, Forestry and Fisheries (DAFF) National Policy on Organic Production, Confidential discussion Paper (10th draft, Republic of South Africa)
EC Organic Agriculture
European Commission (EC) Organic Agriculture (Information Note, EuropeAid, 2012)
Fließbach et al. 2007 Ecosystems and Environment
Fließbach A, Oberholzer H-R, Gunst L and Mäder P "Soil organic matter and biological soil quality indicators after 21 years of organic and convention farming" 2007 Ecosystems and Environment 118 Elsevier 273-284
Giovannucci and Purcell Standards and Agricultural Trade in Asia
Giovannucci D and Purcell T Standards and Agricultural Trade in Asia, Asian Development Bank (ADB) Institute, Discussion Paper No 107, 2008
Girma and Gardebroek 2015 Forest Policy and Economics
Girma J and Gardebroek C "The impact of contracts on organic honey producers’ incomes in SouthWestern Ethiopia" 2015 Forest Policy and Economics 50 Elsevier 259-268
Glin et al. 2015 Journal of Agrarian Change
Glin LC, Oosterveer P, Mol AP "Governing the Organic Cocoa Network from Ghana: towards Hybrid Governance Arrangements?" 2015 15 Journal of Agrarian Change 1 43–64
Hartmann et al. 2015 ISMEJ
Hartmann M, Frey B, Mayer J, Mäder P, Widmer F "Distinct soil microbial diversity under long-term organic and conventional farming" 2015 International Society for Microbial Ecology Journal (ISMEJ) 9 5 1177-1194
Hole et al. 2005 Biological Conservation
Hole DG, Perkins AJ, Wilson JD, Alexander IH, Grice PV and Evans AD "Does organic farming benefit biodiversity?" 2005 Biological Conservation 122 1 113-130
Kelly and Metelerkamp Smallholder Farmers and Organic Agriculture in South Africa
Kelly C and Metelerkamp L Smallholder Farmers and Organic Agriculture in South Africa (Southern Africa Food Lab, South Africa, 2015)
Kleemann and Abdula 2013 Ecological Economics
Kleemann L and Abdula A "Organic Certification, agro-ecological practices and return on investment: Evidence from pineapple producers in Ghana" 2013 Ecological Economics 93 330-341
Kunene-Ngubane et al. 2014 African Journal Of Indigenous Knowledge Systems
Kunene-Ngubane P, Chimonyo M and Kolanisi U "Potential for organic beef production by communal farmers in Southern Africa: A review" 2014 African Journal Of Indigenous Knowledge Systems 13(1) 153–163
Lernoud and Willer Organic agriculture worldwide: Key results from the FiBL survey on organic agriculture worldwide-Part 1: Global data and survey background
Lernoud J and Willer H Organic agriculture worldwide: Key results from the FiBL survey on organic agriculture worldwide-Part 1: Global data and survey background (Research Institute of Organic Agriculture (FiBL), 2017)
Lernoud and Willer Organic agriculture worldwide: Key results from the FiBL survey on organic agriculture worldwide-Part 3: Global data and survey background
Lernoud J and Willer H Organic agriculture worldwide: Key results from the FiBL survey on organic agriculture worldwide-Part 3: Global data and survey background, Research Institute of Organic Agriculture (FiBL), 2017
Lim Tung 2016 PELJ
Lim Tung OJ "Organic Food Certification in South Africa: A Private Sector Mechanism in Need of State Regulation?" 2016 Potchefstroom Electronic Law Journal 19 1-48
Lori et al. 2017 PLoS One
Lori M, Symnaczik S, Mäder P, De Deyn G, Gattinger A "Organic Farming Enhances Soil Microbial Abundance and Activity-A Meta-analysis and meta-regression" 2017 PLoS One 12 7 e0180442 1-25
Mäder et al. 2002 Science
Mäder P, Fliessbach A, Dubois D, Gunst L, Fried P and Niggli U "Soil Fertility and Biodiversity in Organic Farming" 2002 296 Science 5573 1694-1697
Munteanu 2015 Network Intelligence Studies
Munteanu A-R "The Third Party Certification System of Organic Products" 2015 3 Network Intelligence Studies 2 (6) 145-151
Oladapo and Opeoluwa "Indigenous Nigerian ethno-veterinary practices"
Oladapo F and Opeoluwa O "Indigenous Nigerian ethno-veterinary practices" in Raymond Auerbach, Gunnar Rundgren and Nadia El-Hage Scialabba (eds.) Organic Agriculture: African experiences in resilience and sustainability (Food and Agriculture Organisation (FAO), Rome, 2013) 68-78
Olusegun and Olubiyi 2017 Journal of African Law
Olusegun OO and Olubiyi IA "Implications of genetically modified crops and intellectual property rights on Agriculture in developing countries" 2017 Journal of African Law 61 2 253–271
Parvathi and Waibel 2016 World Development
Parvathi P and Waibel H "Organic Agriculture and Fair Trade: A Happy Marriage? A Case Study of Certified Smallholder Black Pepper Farmers in India" 2016 World Development 77 206-220
Taheri et al. 2017 Sustainability
Taheri F, Azadi H and D’Haese M "A World without Hunger: Organic or GM Crops?" 2017 Sustainability 9 4 580-597
Takahashi and Todo 2013 Journal of Environmental Management
Takahashi R and Todo Y "The impact of a shade coffee certification program on forest conservation: A Case study from a wild coffee forest in Ethiopia" 2013 Journal of Environmental Management Elsevier 130 48-54
TOCA 2003 Organic Standards for Agriculture Production-Short Standards for Local Market
Tanzania Organic Certification Association (TOCA) Organic Standards for Agriculture Production-Short Standards for Local Market 2003
Thamaga-Chitja and Hendriks 2008 Development Southern Africa
Thamaga-Chitja J and Hendriks SL "Emerging issues in smallholder organic production and marketing in South Africa" 2008 Development Southern Africa 25 3 317-326
UOCL 2004 Uganda Organic Standard for Organic Production and Processing
Uganda Organic Certification Limited (UOCL) Uganda Organic Standard for Organic Production and Processing, Final Draft 008/UOS 2004
UNEP Building inclusive green economies in Africa: Experience and lessons learned 2010-2015
United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) Building inclusive green economies in Africa: Experience and lessons learned 2010-2015 2015
UNCTAD Financing organic agriculture in Africa-Mapping the issues
United Nations Conference on Trade and Development (UNCTAD) Financing organic agriculture in Africa-Mapping the issues 2016
UNCTAD Organic Agriculture and Food Security in Africa
United Nations Conference on Trade and Development (UNCTAD) Organic Agriculture and Food Security in Africa 2008
Venkat 2012 Journal of Sustainable Agriculture
Venkat K "Comparison of Twelve Organic and Conventional Farming Systems: A Life Cycle Greenhouse Gas Emissions Perspective" 2012 Journal of Sustainable Agriculture 36 6 620-649
Willer and Kilcher 2010 The world of organic agriculture, statistics and emerging trends 2010
Willer H and Kilcher L (eds) The world of organic agriculture, statistics and emerging trends 2010 Research Institute of Organic Agriculture (FiBL) and International Federation of Organic Agriculture Movement (IFOAM)-Organics International Report, 2010
Williams 2009 "An African Success Story: Ghana’s Cocoa Marketing System"
Williams T "An African Success Story: Ghana’s Cocoa Marketing System" Wiley Online Library, 2009 IDS Working Papers 318 special issue 1-47
Legislation
South Africa
Agricultural Products Standards Act 119 of 1990
European Union
EEC Regulation 2092/91 (24 June 1991)
EC Regulation 882/2004 (29 April 2004)
EC Regulation 834/2007 (28 June 2007)
EC Regulation 889/2008 (5 September 2008)
EC Regulation 1235/2008 (8 December 2008)
EU Regulation 1267/2011 (6 December 2011)
Morocco
Moroccan 2013 Law on organic agricultural and aquatic products (Loi 39-12 relative à la production biologique des produits agricoles et aquatiques promulguée par le dahir n°1-12-66 du 4 rabii/1434 (16 janvier 2013)(Bulletin Officiel n° 6128 du 21 février 2013)
Tunisia
Tunisia’s 1999 Law on organic agriculture and 2000 Decree on organic agriculture (Loi n°99-30 du 5 avril 1999 relative à l’agriculture biologique and décret n°2000-409 du 14 février 2000, fixant les conditions d’agréments des organismes de contrôle et de certification et les procédures de contrôle et de certification dans l’agriculture biologique)
Internet sources
AU https://au.int/en/au-nutshell
African Union (AU), AU in a Nutshell, available at https://au.int/en/au-nutshell accessed on 21 September 2017
AU https://au.int/en/memberstates
African Union (AU), List of States Parties, available at https://au.int/en/memberstates accessed on 21 July 2017
African Union (AU) Technical guidelines, document for preparing country biennial review report on progress made for achieving the Malabo Declaration Goals and Targets 2017, available at https://au.int/sites/default/files/documents/32377-doc-technical_guidelines_for_reporting_on_malabo_rev2_eng.pdf accessed on 31 July 2017
Akinbamijo and Fay 2012 http://ec.europa.eu/agriculture/sites/agriculture/files/developing-countries/partners/au-organic/au-eu-joint-paper_en.pdf
Akinbamijo Y and Fay F ‘African Organic Product and the EU: Status, Requirements, Opportunities and AU-EU opportunities’, 2nd African Organic Conference, Lusaka, Zambia, 2-4 May 2012, p. 5, <http://ec.europa.eu/agriculture/sites/agriculture/files/developing-countries/partners/au-organic/au-eu-joint-paper_en.pdf> accessed on 19 May 2017
BVAT 2015 http://www.kilimohai.org/fileadmin/02_documents/EOA/THE_EOA_STRATEGIC_PLAN_2015-2025.pdf
Bio Vision Africa Trust (BVAT), Ecological Organic Agriculture (EOA) Initiative 2015-2025, 2015 African Union available at http://www.kilimohai.org/fileadmin/02_documents/EOA/THE_EOA_STRATEGIC_PLAN_2015-2025.pdf accessed on 19 May 2017
Biodynamic Association https://www.biodynamics.com/what-is-biodynamics
Biodynamic Association What is biodynamics? available at https://www.biodynamics.com/what-is-biodynamics accessed on 1 August 2017
Biosuisse 2017 https://www.bio-suisse.ch/en/home.php
Biosuisse, Bio bud. People, animals and nature in balance 2017 available at https://www.bio-suisse.ch/en/home.php accessed on 1 August 2017
Bryanston Organic and Natural Market http://www.bryanstonorganicmarket.co.za/
Bryanston Organic and Natural Market available at http://www.bryanstonorganicmarket.co.za/ accessed on 27 September 2017.
EAC 2007 https://www.organic-standards.info/en/documents/East-African-Organic-Product-standard,25
East African Community (EAC) East African Organic Product Standards EAS 456:2007 (2007), available at https://www.organic-standards.info/en/documents/East-African-Organic-Product-standard,25 accessed on 16 May 2017
Energies, Environnement 2016 http://energienvironnement.com/lagriculture-bio-afrique-enjeux-dune-pratique-aux-imperatifs-de-reglementation/
Energies, Environnement L’agriculture bio en Afrique: Des enjeux d’une pratique aux impératifs d’une règlementation 1 May 2016, available at http://energienvironnement.com/lagriculture-bio-afrique-enjeux-dune-pratique-aux-imperatifs-de-reglementation/ accessed on 20 July 2017
EC 2017 https://ec.europa.eu/agriculture/organic/eu-policy/eu-rules-on-trade/non-eu-trading-partners_en
European Commission (EC) Agriculture and Rural Development, Organic Farming 2017, available at https://ec.europa.eu/agriculture/organic/eu-policy/eu-rules-on-trade/non-eu-trading-partners_en accessed on 19 September 2017
EU 2018 https://europa.eu/european-union/about-eu/eu-in-brief_en
European Union (EU) The EU in brief 2018 available at https://europa.eu/european-union/about-eu/eu-in-brief_en accessed on 21 July 2017
Global Agricultural Information Network (GAIN), Organic Agriculture in Nigeria, United States Department of Agriculture (USDA) Foreign Agricultural Service, 2014, available at https://gain.fas.usda.gov/Recent%20GAIN%20Publications/Organic%20Agriculture%20in%20Nigeria_Lagos_Nigeria_6-5-2014.pdf accessed on 20 July 2017
GOMA 2012 http://www.fao.org/docrep/015/an765e/an765e00.pdf
Global Organic Market Access (GOMA) Asia Regional Organic Standard (Food and Agriculture Organisation (FAO), United Nations Conference on Trade and Development (UNCTAD), International Federation of Organic Agriculure Movements (IFOAM), 2012), available at http://www.fao.org/docrep/015/an765e/an765e00.pdf accessed on 17 August 2017
Institute of Natural Resources (INR), ‘Study to develop a Value Chain Strategy for Sustainable Development and Growth of Organic Agriculture’ (Trade and Industry Chamber Fund for research into industrial development, growth and equity (final report 2008) available at http://www.ifoam.bio/sites/default/files/page/files/study_to_develop_a_value_chain_strategy_for_sustainable_development_and_growth_of_organic_agriculture.pdf accessed on 23 August 2016
IFOAM 2005 https://www.ifoam.bio/sites/default/files/page/files/norms_eng_v4_
International Federation of Organic Agriculture Movement (IFOAM) Basic Standards for Organic Production and Processing 2005 available at
https://www.ifoam.bio/sites/default/files/page/files/norms_eng_v4_20090113.pdf accessed on 25 January 2018
IFOAM Organics International http://www.ifoam.bio/en/organic-policy-guarantee/participatory-guarantee-systems-pgs
International Federation of Organic Agriculture Movement (IFOAM) Organics International, Participatory Guarantee Systems, available at http://www.ifoam.bio/en/organic-policy-guarantee/participatory-guarantee-systems-pgs accessed on 17 August 2017
IFOAM Organics International 2014 http://www.ifoam.bio/en/ifoam-family-standards-0
International Federation of Organic Agriculture Movement (IFOAM) Organics International The IFOAM Norms for Organic Production and Processing 2014 available at http://www.ifoam.bio/en/ifoam-family-standards-0 accessed on 7 June 2017
IFOAM Organics International https://www.ifoam.bio/en/regional-bodies/isan-ifoam-southern-african-network
International Federation of Organic Agriculture Movement (IFOAM) Organics International, ISAN (IFOAM South African network), available at https://www.ifoam.bio/en/regional-bodies/isan-ifoam-southern-african-network accessed on 7 June 2017
IFOAM Organics International 2017 http://www.ifoam.bio/en/ifoam-standard
International Federation of Organic Agriculture Movement (IFOAM) Organics International IFOAM Standard 2017 available at http://www.ifoam.bio/en/ifoam-standard accessed on 1 August 2017
ITF and GOMA 2012 http://www.fao.org/docrep/015/an905e/an905e00.pdf
International Task Force (ITF) on Harmonization and Equivalence in Organic Agriculture and The Global Organic Market Access (GOMA) Project, Organic Equivalence Tools International Requirements for Organic Certification (IROC) and Guide for Assessing Equivalence of Organic Standards and Technical Regulations (EquiTool) Version 2, 2012, Available at http://www.fao.org/docrep/015/an905e/an905e00.pdf accessed on 25 July 2017
KOAN http://www.koan.co.ke/services/index.php
Kenya Organic Agriculture Network (KOAN) Organic marketing in Kenya available at http://www.koan.co.ke/services/index.php accessed on 25 May 2017
Naturland http://www.naturland.de/en/producers/steps-to-naturland-certification.html
Naturland Steps to Naturland Certification available at http://www.naturland.de/en/producers/steps-to-naturland-certification.html accessed on 1 August 2017
NEPAD and AU 2003 http://www.nepad.org/resource/au-2003-maputo-declaration-agriculture-and-food-security
New Partnership for Africa’s Development (NEPAD) and African Union (AU) Maputo Declaration on Agriculture and Food Security, 2003, available at http://www.nepad.org/resource/au-2003-maputo-declaration-agriculture-and-food-security accessed on 8 August 2017
NEPAD http://www.nepad.org/programme/comprehensive-africa-agriculture-development-programme-caadp
New Partnership for Africa’s Development (NEPAD) Comprehensive Africa Agriculture Development Programme (CAADP), available at http://www.nepad.org/programme/comprehensive-africa-agriculture-development-programme-caadp accessed on 20 July 2017
Novy et al. 2011 http://www.agbioforum.org/v14n3/v14n3a06-novy.pdf
Novy Ari, Ledermann Samuel, Pray Carl and Nagarajan Latha "Balancing Agricultural Development Resources: Are GM and Organic Agriculture in Opposition in Africa?" AgBioForum, 14(3) 142-157 available at http://www.agbioforum.org/v14n3/v14n3a06-novy.pdf accessed on 29 May 2017
Organic Africa 2011 http://www.organic-africa.net/training-manual.html
Organic Africa African Organic Agriculture Training Manual 2011 available at http://www.organic-africa.net/training-manual.html accessed on 17 August 2017
Organic Farms Group http://www.organicfarmsgroup.com/
Organic Farms Group available at http://www.organicfarmsgroup.com/ accessed on 27 September 2017
Organic World http://www.organic-world.net/country-info/asia/overviews/asia-2014.html
Organic World, Organic Agriculture Status in Asia in 2014, available at http://www.organic-world.net/country-info/asia/overviews/asia-2014.html accessed on 18 September 2017
Organic World 2011 http://www.organic-world.net/index/news-organic-world/article/501.html
Organic World, African Union adopts decision on organic farming, 1 February 2011, available at http://www.organic-world.net/index/news-organic-world/article/501.html accessed on 25 July 2017
Permacultureprinciples.com https://permacultureprinciples.com/
Permacultureprinciples.com What is Permaculture?, available at https://permacultureprinciples.com/ accessed on 1 August 2017
Pretty 1999 Environment, Development and Sustainability
Pretty J "Can sustainable agriculture feed Africa? New evidence on progress, processes and impacts" 1999 Environment, Development and Sustainability 1 3-4 253-274 available at https://link.springer.com/article/10.1023%2FA%3A1010039224868?LI=true accessed on 27 July 2017
SPC 2008 http://www.ifoam.bio/sites/default/files/page/files/pacific_organic_
standard.pdf
Secretariat of the Pacific Community (SPC), Pacific Organic Standard, 2008, available at http://www.ifoam.bio/sites/default/files/page/files/pacific_organic_standard.pdf accessed on 21 September 2017
Simpson 2015 http://www.africanorganicconference.com/
Simpson S "Organic agriculture could help Africa fight poverty" 17 April 2015, available at http://www.africanorganicconference.com/ accessed on 31 July 2017
SAOSO 2017 https://docs.wixstatic.com/ugd/573628_936f443e556846ceab02c85084cc6a0f.pdf
South African Organic Sector Organisation (SAOSO), SAOSO Standard for Organic Production and Processing, 2017, Final version 1.5, available at https://docs.wixstatic.com/ugd/573628_936f443e556846ceab02c85084cc6a0f.pdf (last accessed 7 June 2018)
Tralac 2015 https://www.tralac.org/resources/by-region/comesa-eac-sadc-tripartite-fta.html
Tralac (Trade Law Centre), SADC-EAC-COMESA Tripartite Free Trade Area Legal Texts and Policy Documents, 2015, available at https://www.tralac.org/resources/by-region/comesa-eac-sadc-tripartite-fta.html (last accessed 26 September 2017)
UNEP 2010 https://www.oecd.org/aidfortrade/47719232.pdf
United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) Aid for trade case story: The East African Organic Products Standard 2010 available at https://www.oecd.org/aidfortrade/47719232.pdf accessed on 19 May 2017
UNEP-UNCTAD 2008 http://unctad.org/en/Docs/ditcted20073_en.pdf
United Nations Environment Programme-United Nations Conference on Trade and Development (UNEP-UNCTAD), Best practices for organic policy, 2008, available at http://unctad.org/en/Docs/ditcted20073_en.pdf (last accessed 31 July 2017)
UNFSS 2013 https://unfss.files.wordpress.com/2013/04/unfss_goma_philippines.pdf
United Nations Forum on Sustainability Standards (UNFSS), Resources for the ASEAN Economic Community: Lessons learnt from the Global Organic Market Access (GOMA) Project 2013 available at https://unfss.files.wordpress.com/2013/04/unfss_goma_philippines.pdf accessed on 19 September 2017
UNSDKP https://sustainabledevelopment.un.org/index.php?page=view&type=99&nr=34&menu=1449
United Nations Sustainable Development Knowledge Platform (UNSDKP) Uganda Organic Agriculture Standards and Policies available at https://sustainabledevelopment.un.org/index.php?page=view&type=99&nr=34&menu=1449 accessed on 21 July 2017
Willer and Lernoud 2015 https://www.fibl.org/fileadmin/documents/shop/1663-organic-world-2015.pdf
Willer H and Lernoud J (eds) The World of Organic Agriculture, Statistics and Emerging Trends 2015 (Research Institute of Organic Agriculture (FiBL) and International Federation of Organic Agriculture Movement (IFOAM-Organics International) Report 2015) https://www.fibl.org/fileadmin/documents/shop/1663-organic-world-2015.pdf accessed on 3 December 2015
Willer and Lernoud 2017 https://shop.fibl.org/CHen/
mwdownloads/download/link/id/785/?ref=1
Willer H and Lernoud J (eds) The world of organic agriculture, statistics and emerging trends 2017 (Research Institute of Organic Agriculture (FiBL) and International Federation of Organic Agriculture Movement (IFOAM)-Organics International Report) available at https://shop.fibl.org/CHen/mwdownloads/download/link/id/785/?ref=1 accessed on 27 September 2017
World Population Review 2017 http://worldpopulationreview.com/continents/africa-population/
World Population Review Africa Population 2017 available at http://worldpopulationreview.com/continents/africa-population/ accessed on 14 September 2017
LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS
AfroNet African Organic Network
AROS Asia Regional Organic Standard
ASEAN Association of SouthEast Asian Nations
ASOA ASEAN Standard for Organic Agriculture
BVAT Bio Vision Africa Trust
BDOCA Biodynamic and Organic Certification Authority
BOAM Burundi Organic Agricultural Movement
CAADP Comprehensive Africa Agriculture Development Programme
COMESA Common Market for Eastern and Southern Africa
DAFF Department of Agriculture, Forestry and Fisheries (South Africa)
DREA Department for Rural Economy and Agriculture
EAC East African Community
EAEP East Africa Export Programme
EAOPS East African Organic Product Standards
EC European Community
ECLJ European Consumer Law Journal
ECOWAS Economic Community of West African States
Eds editors
EOA Ecological Organic Agriculture
EquiTool Equivalence of Organic Standards and Technical Regulations
EEC European Economic Community
Published
How to Cite
Issue
Section
License
Copyright (c) 2018 Odile Juliette Lim Tung
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License.
.png){kind=spacer}