Outer Space Exploration and the Sustainability of the Space Environment – An Uneasy Relationship

Authors

DOI:

https://doi.org/10.17159/1727-3781/2023/v26i0a14960

Keywords:

outer space, sustainability, space debris, outer space heritage, cultural heritage, human heritage, planetary parks, outer space environment, anthropocentrism, UNCOPUOS, UNESCO

Abstract

In contrast with the early years of space flight that were dominated by the political priorities and military concerns of the two superpowers, the USA and the then Soviet Union, a new space era has dawned where not only states are involved as serious actors in the space arena, but also private companies. Because of the significant increase in the number of space actors, outer space is becoming a congested and competitive environment. It is self-evident that the significant increase in private and state-sponsored space ventures has serious implications for the protection and sustainability of the outer space environment. Specifically, the proliferation of space debris and the current lack of protection of vulnerable scientific, historical, and cultural sites on celestial bodies are issues of concern. Several measures to balance the seemingly competing interests of space exploration and the sustainability of the space environment have been suggested. This article aims to discuss these measures and to assess to what extent they are in conformity with the current outer space governance regime. It is concluded that the measures suggested to actively address the space debris problem and to protect the cultural heritage in space may contravene the Outer Space Treaty, especially the rules and prohibitions regarding property rights in space. Moreover, whilst the removal of orbital debris is essential to ensure the sustainable use of the outer space environment, some space junk may have cultural significance and be worthy of protection. A balance should thus be struck between preserving cultural heritage and managing the risks posed by space debris. It is therefore recommended that the development of interim soft-law rules (and an eventual treaty) should be undertaken under the auspices of existing United Nations bodies, namely the UNCOPUOS and UNESCO.

Downloads

Download data is not yet available.

Author Biography

  • Anel Ferreira-Snyman, University of South Africa

    Professor, Department of Jurisprudence, School of Law, University of South Africa

References

BILIOGRAPHY

Literature

Abul Failat Y and Ferreira-Snyman A "Regulation of the Space Tourism Sector" in Abul Failat Y and Ferreira-Snyman A (eds) Outer Space Law: Legal Policy and Practice 2nd ed (Globe Law and Business London 2022) 301-346

Babcock HM "The Public Trust Doctrine, Outer Space, and the Global Commons: Time to Call Home ET" 2019 Syracuse L Rev 191-262

Bohdan D "Necessity of Special Regulation for Protection of Cultural Heritage Sites on the Moon" in Froelich A (ed) Protection of Cultural Heritage Sites on the Moon (Springer Vienna 2020) 65-71

Carns MG "Consent not Required: Making the Case that Consent is not Required under Customary International Law for Removal of Outer Space Debris Smaller than 10cm" 2017 AF L Rev 173-234

Chatterjee J "Legal Issues Relating to Unauthorised Space Debris Remediation" 2014 Proceedings of the International Institute of Space Law 13-34

Chatzipanagiotis M "Registration of Space Objects and Transfer of Ownership in Orbit" 2007 German Journal of Air and Space Law 229-238

Chrysaki M "The Sustainable Commercialisation of Space: The Case for a Voluntary Code for the Space Industry" 2020 Space Policy 1-15

Chung G "Jurisdiction and Control Aspects of Space Debris Removal" in Froelich A (ed) Space Security and Legal Aspects of Active Debris Removal (Springer Vienna 2019) 31-47

Cinelli C and Pogorzelska K "The Current International Legal Setting for the Protection of the Outer Space Environment: The Precautionary Principle Avant La Lettre" 2013 RECIEL 186-201

Cockell CC and Horneck G "Planetary Parks: Formulating a Wilderness Policy for Planetary Bodies" 2006 Space Policy 256-261

De Lucia V and Iavicoli V "From Outer Space to Ocean Depths: The 'Spacecraft Cemetery' and the Protection of the Marine Environment in Areas Beyond National Jurisdiction" 2019 Cal W Int'l LJ 345-389

Diedericks-Verschoor IH Ph and Kopal V An Introduction to Space Law 3rd ed (Kluwer International Alphen aan den Rijn 2008)

Dugard J and Tladi D "Sources of International Law" in Dugard J et al Dugard's International Law 5th ed (Juta Claremont 2018) 28-56

Erlank W "Property and Ownership in Outer Space" in Abul Failat Y and Ferreira-Snyman A (eds) Outer Space Law: Law, Policy and Practice 2nd ed (Globe Law and Business London 2022) 129-160

Farsaris AE "How to Preserve Humanity's Lunar Heritage" in Froelich A (ed) Protection of Cultural Heritage Sites on the Moon (Springer Vienna 2020) 73-84

Ferreira G and Ferreira-Snyman A "The Extraterritorial Application of Human Rights Instruments in Outer Space Settlements" in Abul Failat Y and Ferreira-Snyman A (eds) Outer Space Law: Law, Policy and Practice 2nd ed (Globe Law and Business London 2022) 475-503

Ferreira-Snyman A "The Environmental Responsibility for Space Debris and the Implications for Developing Countries in Africa" 2013 CILSA 19-51

Ferreira-Snyman A "Legal Challenges Relating to the Commercial Use of Outer Space with Specific Reference to Space Tourism" 2014 PELJ 2-50

Ferreira-Snyman A "Cooperation in Outer Space Activities: South Africa's Role as a Member State of the African Union and BRICS" 2018 CILSA 141-170

Ferreira-Snyman A "Challenges to the Prohibition on Sovereignty in Outer Space – A New Frontier for Space Governance" 2021 PELJ 1-50

Ferreira-Snyman A "Environmental Responsibility for Space Debris" in Abul Failat Y and Ferreira-Snyman A (eds) Outer Space Law: Law, Policy and Practice 2nd ed (Globe Law and Business London 2022) 391-427

Ferreira-Snyman A "Military Activities in Outer Space" in Abul Failat Y and Ferreira-Snyman A (eds) Outer Space Law: Law, Policy and Practice 2nd ed (Globe Law and Business London 2022) 65-94

Fogg MJ "The Ethical Dimensions of Space Settlement" 2000 Space Policy 205-211

Ford M "War on the Final Frontier: Can Twentieth Century Space Law Combat Twentieth Century Warfare?" 2017 Hous J Int'l L 237-261

Freeland S and Jakhu R "Article II" in Hobe S et al (eds) Cologne Commentary on Space Law Vol 1 (Carl Heymann Verlag 2009) 44-63

Frigoli M "Between Active Space Debris and Space-Based Weapons: A Comprehensive Legal Approach" in Froelich A (ed) Space Security and Legal Aspects of Active Debris Removal (Springer Vienna 2019) 49-70

Froelich A "The Right to (Anticipatory) Self-Defence in Outer Space to Reduce Space Debris" in Froelich A (ed) Space Security and Legal Aspects of Active Debris Removal (Springer Vienna 2019) 71-92

Giliberto F and Labadi S "Harnessing Cultural Heritage for Sustainable Development: An Analysis of Three Internationally Funded Projects In MENA Countries" 2022 International Journal of Heritage Studies 1-14

Alice Gorman "Not All Space Debris is Junk: A Comprehensive Management Strategy for Culturally Significant Spacecraft" in 68th International Astronautics Conference (25-29 September 2017 Adelaide) 1-10

Gražulevičiūtė I "Cultural Heritage in the Context of Sustainable Development" 2006 Environmental Research, Engineering and Management 74-79

Gupta A "Regulating Space Debris as Separate from Space Objects" 2019 U Pa J Int’l L 223-248

Hanlon M "Due Regard for Commercial Space Must Start with Historic Preservation" 2021 The Global Business Law Review 130-156

Hanlon MLD "Planetary Protection" in Abul Failat Y and Ferreira-Snyman A (eds) Outer Space Law: Legal Policy and Practice 2nd ed (Globe Law and Business London 2022) 175-197

Hardin G "The Tragedy of the Commons" 1968 Science 1243-1248

Haroun F et al "Toward the Sustainability of Outer Space: Addressing the Issue of Space Debris" 2021 New Space 63-71

Hofmann M "Environmental Criteria as a Condition for Space Activities of Non-Entities" 2007 SAYIL 233-246

Kramer WR "Extraterrestrial Environmental Impact Assessments: A Foreseeable Prerequisite for Wise Decisions Regarding Outer Space Exploration, Research and Development" 2014 Space Policy 215-222

Krivokapi B "On the Issue of So-Called 'Instant' Customs in International Law" 2017 Acta Universitatis Danubius. Administratio 81-98

Leister V and Kovudhikulrungsri L "Outer Space: Of the People, by the People, and for the People" 2009 Proceedings of the International Institute of Space Law 145-149

Lixinski L, Losier MM and Schreiber H "Envisioning a Legal Framework for Outer Space Cultural Heritage" 2021 J Space L 1-45

Lopez H "The Protection of Cultural Heritage Sites on the Moon: The Poo Bag Paradox" in Froelich A (ed) Protection of Cultural Heritage Sites on the Moon (Springer Vienna 2020) 131-143

Lyall F and Larsen PB Space Law: A Treatise 2nd ed (Routledge London 2020)

Martin A-S "The 'Outstanding Universal Value' Concept of the UNESCO World Heritage Convention: Food for Thought to Preserve Lunar Artefacts" in Froelich A (ed) Protection of Cultural Heritage Sites on the Moon (Springer Vienna 2020) 53-64

Martinez LF "Legal Regime Sustainability in Outer Space: Theory and Practice" 2019 Global Sustainability 1-6

Mukherjee U and Mokkapati A "Determining Liability for Damage Caused Due to Debris in Outer Space: Portal to a New Regime" 2009 Proceedings of the International Institute of Space Law 285-296

Neger T and Walter E "Space Law: An Independent Branch of the Legal System" in Brünner C and Soucek A (eds) Outer Space in Society, Politics and Law (Springer-Verlag Vienna 2011) 234-245

Newman CJ and Williamson M "Space Sustainability: Reframing the Debate" 2018 Space Policy 30-37

Persoz G "One Small Step to Protect Human Heritage in Space Act as One Small Step Towards US Space Dominance? The Case for a Multilateral Treaty Protection Regime" in Froelich A (ed) Protection of Cultural Heritage Sites on the Moon (Springer Vienna 2020) 41-52

Pham LBN "Does the Outer Space Treaty Permit the Protection and Preservation of Cultural Heritage Sites on the Moon?" in Froelich A (ed) Protection of Cultural Heritage Sites on the Moon (Springer Vienna 2020) 27-39

Prasad MYS and Lochan R "Common but Differentiated Responsibility: A Principle to Maintain Space Environment with Respect to Space Debris" 2007 Proceedings of the International Institute of Space Law 284-292

Reinstein EJ "Owning Outer Space" 1999 Northwestern Journal of International Law and Business 59-98

Rosendal M "Galactic Preservation and Beyond: A Framework for Protecting Cultural, Natural, and Scientific Heritage in Space" 2019 Wm & Mary Envtl L &

Rotola G "The Legal Framework Protecting Cultural Heritage Sites on the Moon and In Situ Preservation" in Froelich A (ed) Protection of Cultural Heritage Sites on the Moon (Springer Vienna 2020) 1-12

Schrogl K-U "Space and Its Sustainable Uses" in Brünner C and Soucek A (eds) Outer Space in Society, Politics and Law (Springer-Verlag Vienna 2011) 604-618

Sgrosso GC International Space Law (LoGisma Florence 2011)

Soucek A "International Law" in Brünner C and Soucek A (eds) Outer Space in Society, Politics and Law (Springer-Verlag Vienna 2011) 294-405

Soucek A "Space and Sustainability: Improving Life on Earth" in Brünner C and Soucek A (eds) Outer Space in Society, Politics and Law (Springer-Verlag Vienna 2011) 569-603

Tronchetti F "Soft Law" in Brünner C and Soucek A (eds) Outer Space in Society, Politics and Law (Springer-Verlag Vienna 2011) 619-632

Venet C "The Political Dimension" in Brünner C and Soucek A (eds) Outer Space in Society, Politics and Law (Springer-Verlag Vienna 2011) 73-91

Viikari L The Environmental Element in Space Law: Assessing the Present and Charting the Future (Martninus Nijhoff Leiden 2008)

Welly ND "Enlightened State-Interest: A Legal Framework for Protecting the 'Common Interest of All Mankind' from Hardinian Tragedy" 2010 J Space L 273-313

Williamson M "Space Ethics and the Protection of the Space Environment" 2003 Space Policy 47-52

Yun Z "Revisiting the 1975 Registration Convention: Time for Revision?" 2004 Australian Journal of International Law 106-127

Zajackowski D "Could the Moon's Cultural Heritage be Inscribed on UNESCO's World Heritage List?" in Froelich A (ed) Protection of Cultural Heritage Sites on the Moon (Springer Vienna 2020) 13-26

Case law

International Court of Justice

Legality of the Threat or Use of Nuclear Weapons in Armed Conflict 1996 ICJ Reports 226

Legislation

United States of America

Apollo Lunar Landing Legacy Act, 2013

One Small Step to Protect Human Heritage in Space Act, 2021

International law documents and instruments

Agreement Governing the Activities of States on the Moon and Other Celestial Bodies (1979)

Charter of the United Nations (1945)

Consideration of Areas for Possible New Guidelines Concerning the Long-Term Sustainability of Outer Space Activities UN Doc A/AC.105/C.1/2023/CRP.17 (2023)

Convention on International Liability for Damage Caused by Space Objects (1971)

Convention on Registration of Objects Launched into Outer Space (1974)

Draft International Code of Conduct for Outer Space Activities (2014)

Group of Governmental Experts on Transparency and Confidence-Building Measures in Outer Space Activities UN Doc A/68/189 (2013)

Guidelines for the Long-Term Sustainability of Outer Space Activities UN Doc A/AC.105/2018/CRP.20 (2018)

ILC Articles on the Responsibility of States for Internationally Wrongful Acts, Report of the International Law Commission UN Doc A/56/10 (2001)

International Cooperation in the Peaceful Uses of Outer Space GA Res 62/217, UN Doc A/RES/62/217 (2007)

Operational Guidelines for the Implementation of the World Heritage Convention WHC.21/01 (2021)

Report of the Scientific and Technical Committee of UNCOPUOS on its 47th Session, Vienna 8-19 February 2010 UN Doc A/AC.105/958 (2010)

Rio Declaration on Environment and Development (1992)

Technical Report on Space Debris UN Doc A/AC.105/720 (1999)

Treaty on the Principles Governing the Activities of States in the Exploration and Use of Outer Space, Including the Moon and Other Celestial Bodies (1967)

UN Framework Convention on Climate Change (1992)

UNESCO Convention Concerning the Protection of the World Cultural and Natural Heritage (1972)

UNESCO Convention on the Protection of the Underwater Cultural Heritage (2001)

Internet sources

Aranca 2022 Modern Technologies to Clean Up Space Debris https://www.aranca.com/knowledge-library/articles/ip-research/modern-technologies-to-clean-up-space-debris accessed 31 July 2022

Arms Control Association 2022 Seven Countries Join ASAT Test Ban https://www.armscontrol.org/act/2022-11/news-briefs/seven-countries-join-asat-test-ban accessed 12 May 2023

Arrieche A 2022 NASA Artemis Signals the US v China Race to Build a Moon Base is Go https://www.business2community.com/tech-news/nasa-artemis-signals-the-us-v-china-race-to-build-a-moon-base-is-go-02541751 accessed 1 September 2022

Artemis Accords 2022 The Artemis Accords: Principles for Cooperation in the Civil Exploration and Use of the Moon, Mars Comets and Asteroids for Peaceful Purposes https://www.nasa.gov/specials/artemis-accords/img/Artemis-Accords-signed-13Oct2020.pdf accessed 1 September 2022

Barentine JC et al 2023 Aggregate Effects of Proliferating Low-Earth-Orbit Objects and Implications for Astronomical Data Lost in the Noise https://www.nature.com/articles/s41550-023-01904-2 accessed 8 May 2023

Blinken A 2021 Secretary of State, Press Statement: Russia Conducts Destructive Anti-Satellite Missile Test https://www.state.gov/russia-conducts-destructive-anti-satellite-missile-test/ accessed 3 August 2022

Blue Origin 2022 Home https://www.blueorigin.com/ accessed 29 July 2022

Bridenstine J 2020 NASA: We're Going Back to the Moon, and Beyond https://www.usatoday.com/story/opinion/todaysdebate/2020/05/26/nasa-going-back-moon-and-beyond-editorials-debates/5259920002/ accessed 4 August 2020

China National Space Administration 2021 International Lunar Research Station – Guide for Partnership http://www.cnsa.gov.cn/english/n6465652/n6465653/c6812150/content.html accessed 1 September 2022

COSPAR Date unknown Committee on Space Research https://cosparhq.cnes.fr/ accessed 21 July 2022

COSPAR 2020 Policy on Planetary Protection https://cosparhq.cnes.fr/assets/uploads/2020/07/PPPolicyJune-2020_Final_Web.pdf accessed 21 July 2021

David L 2013 Planetary Parks Could Protect Space Wilderness https://www.space.com/19302-planetary-parks-space-wilderness-protection.html accessed 21 July 2021

ESA 2020 https://www.esa.int/Newsroom/Press_Releases/Call_for_Media_ESA_and_ClearSpace_SA_sign_contract_for_world_s_first_debris_removal_mission

European Space Agency 2020 N° 26–2020: Call for Media: ESA and Clearspace SA Sign Contract for World's First Debris Removal Mission https://www.esa.int/Newsroom/Press_Releases/Call_for_Media_ESA_and_ClearSpace_SA_sign_contract_for_world_s_first_debris_removal_mission accessed 31 July 2022

European Union 2014 The Fifth Revised International Draft Code of Conduct for Outer Space Activities https://www.eeas.europa.eu/sites/default/files/space_code_conduct_draft_vers_31-march-2014_en.pdf accessed 31 July 2022

European Commission Date unknown Sustainability and Cultural Heritage https://culture.ec.europa.eu/cultural-heritage/cultural-heritage-in-eu-policies/sustainability-and-cultural-heritage#:~:text=Sustainability%20is%20one%20of%20the,achieve%20inclusive%20and%20sustainable%20development accessed 3 February 2023

For All Moonkind Date unknown Home https://www.forallmoonkind.org/ accessed 1 August 2022

For All Moonkind Date unknown Moon Registry https://moonregistry.forallmoonkind.org/about-us/ accessed 1 August 2022

Foust J 2019 Starlink Failures Highlight Space Sustainability Concerns https://spacenews.com/starlink-failures-highlight-space-sustainability-concerns/ accessed 29 July 2022

Foust J 2021 Space Force Backs Development of Commercial Orbital Debris Removal Systems https://spacenews.com/space-force-backs-development-of-commercial-orbital-debris-removal-systems/ accessed 1 August 2022

Gorman A 2017 Trash or Treasure? A Lot of Space Debris is Junk, but Some is Precious Heritage https://theconversation.com/trash-or-treasure-a-lot-of-space-debris-is-junk-but-some-is-precious-heritage-82832 accessed 11 December 2022

Griggs MB 200 The ISS Just Avoided a "Piece of Unknown Space Debris" https://www.theverge.com/2020/9/23/21451587/iss-space-junk-debris-avoidance-maneuverhttps://www.theverge.com/2020/9/23/21451587/iss-space-junk-debris-avoidance-maneuver accessed 4 August 2022

Hanlon MLD 2021 Apollo Landers, Neil Armstrong's Bootprint and Other Human Artifacts on Moon Officially Protected by New US Law https://theconversation.com/apollo-landers-neil-armstrongs-bootprint-and-other-human-artifacts-on-moon-officially-protected-by-new-us-law-152661 accessed 27 May 2022

Inter-Agency Space Debris Coordination Committee 2020 Space Debris Mitigation Guidelines https://orbitaldebris.jsc.nasa.gov/library/iadc-space-debris-guidelines-revision-2.pdf accessed 27 May 2022

Irsten G 2021 The Consultation Process for the International Code of Conduct for Outer Space Activities Ends https://www.reachingcriticalwill.org/news/latest-news/8907-the-consultation-process-for-the-international-code-of-conduct-for-outer-space-activities-ends accessed 1 August 2022

Kilic C 2022 Mars Littered with 15 694 Pounds of Human Trash from 50 Years of Robotic Exploration https://www.space.com/mars-littered-with-human-trash accessed 4 October 2022

Knapton S 2018 International Space Station Astronauts Plug Leak with Finger and Tape after Being Hit with Debris https://www.telegraph.co.uk/science/2018/08/30/international-space-station-leaking-air-hit-space-debris/ accessed 3 August 2022

Leiden University 2019 The Hague Building Blocks for the Development of an International Framework on Space Resources Activities https://www.universiteitleiden.nl/en/law/institute-of-public-law/institute-of-air-space-law/the-hague-space-resources-governance-working-group accessed 22 July 2022

Lutkevich B 2020 Kessler Syndrome https://www.techtarget.com/whatis/definition/Kessler-Syndrome accessed 4 August 2022 accessed 1 September 2022

Luxembourg Space Agency 2020 Resources in Space https://space-agency.public.lu/en/space-resources/ressources-in-space.html accessed 8 May 2023

NASA 2011 Recommendations to Space-Faring Entities: How to Protect and Preserve the Historic and Scientific Value of U.S. Government Lunar Artifacts https://www.nasa.gov/sites/default/files/617743main_NASA-USG_LUNAR_HISTORIC_SITES_RevA-508.pdf accessed 4 August 2022

NASA 2021 Artemis https://www.nasa.gov/artemisprogram accessed 1 September 2022

NASA 2022 Splashdown! NASA's Orion Returns to Earth After Historic Moon Mission https://www.nasa.gov/press-release/splashdown-nasa-s-orion-returns-to-earth-after-historic-moon-mission accessed 11 December 2022.

O'Callaghan J 2019 SpaceX's Starlink Could Cause Cascades of Space Junk https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/spacexs-starlink-could-cause-cascades-of-space-junk/ accessed 29 July 2022

Pearlman RZ 2021 New Law is First to Protect Apollo Sites from Future Moon Missions https://www.space.com/one-small-step-space-heritage-act.htm accessed 1 August 2022

Pickrell J 2022 These Six Countries are About to Go to the Moon — Here's Why https://www.nature.com/articles/d41586-022-01252-7 accessed 29 July 2022

Revfine Date unknown Space Tourism: 7 Space Companies That Will Make You an Astronaut https://www.revfine.com/space-tourism/ accessed 11 May 2023

Rigby M and Carter B 2021 A Chunk of Chinese Satellite Almost Hit the International Space Station. They Dodged It – But the Space Junk Problem is Getting Worse https://theconversation.com/a-chunk-of-chinese-satellite-almost-hit-the-international-space-station-they-dodged-it-but-the-space-junk-problem-is-getting-worse-171735 accessed 3 August 2022

Sarang M 2019 Thoughts on UN COPUOS https://spacegeneration.org/oped-thoughts-on-un-copuos accessed 20 September 2022

Secure World Foundation 2019 Space Sustainability https://swfound.org/our-focus/space-sustainability/ accessed 29 July 2022

Secure World Foundation 2022 Who We Are https://swfound.org/about-us/who-we-are/ accessed 29 July 2022

SpaceX 2022 Human Spaceflight https://www.spacex.com/human-spaceflight/iss/index.html accessed 29 July 2022

United Nations 1987 Our Common Future: Report of the World Commission on Environment and Development (Brundtland Report) https://www.are.admin.ch/are/en/home/sustainable-development/international-cooperation/2030agenda/un-_-milestones-in-sustainable-development/1987--brundtland-report.html accessed 29 July 2022

UNESCO Date unknown World Heritage and Sustainable Development https://whc.unesco.org/en/sustainabledevelopment/ accessed 3 February 2023

United Nations Office for Outer Space Affairs 2010 Space Debris Mitigation Guidelines of the Committee on the Peaceful Uses of Outer Space https://www.unoosa.org/pdf/publications/st_space_49E.pdf accessed 5 August 2022

Van den Rul C 2016 Why Have Resolutions of the UN General Assembly if They are not Legally Binding? https://www.e-ir.info/2016/06/16/why-have-resolutions-of-the-un-general-assembly-if-they-are-not-legally-binding/ accessed 29 September 2022

Wall M 2012 Huge Dead Satellite May be Space Junk for 150 Years https://www.space.com/15640-envisat-satellite-space-junk-150years.html accessed 2 December 2022

Published

27-09-2023

Issue

Section

Articles

How to Cite

Ferreira-Snyman, A. (2023). Outer Space Exploration and the Sustainability of the Space Environment – An Uneasy Relationship. Potchefstroom Electronic Law Journal, 26, (Published on 27 September 2023) pp 1 - 52. https://doi.org/10.17159/1727-3781/2023/v26i0a14960

Similar Articles

1-10 of 975

You may also start an advanced similarity search for this article.