Legal Challenges Relating to the Commercial Use of Outer Space, with Specific Reference to Space Tourism
DOI:
https://doi.org/10.17159/1727-3781/2014/v17i1a2189Keywords:
Astronaut, liability, outer space, personal space flight, space tourism, space tourist, space personnel, state responsibilityAbstract
Since the launch of the first artificial satellite, Sputnik 1 in 1957, the outer space arena has evolved to include non-state entities, which are becoming serious participants in outer space activities themselves, including venturing into the space tourism market. Although space tourism is still in its infancy, it is estimated that the number of space tourists will substantially increase within the next few years. As space tourist activities increase, accidents will inevitably occur, which will give rise to legal questions relating to the duty of states to rescue space tourists in distress, and the liability for damages. This contribution points out that the current outer space treaty regime, which focuses on the use of outer space by states, is to a large extent outdated and that it cannot adequately deal with the unique legal challenges presented by the rapidly developing space tourism industry. This situation is exacerbated by the fact that the outer space legal framework is very fragmented – consisting of treaties, UN principles and guidelines, regional regulations and intergovernmental agreements, as well as national guidelines and legislation. In order to ensure that space tourism is indeed to the benefit of all mankind, it is imperative that clear international legal rules relating to space tourism be formulated, where standards are set for the authorisation and supervision of commercial space activities and the interests of states, passengers and private actors are balanced as far as possible. In view of the urgent need to address these legal questions and the consequent lack of time to negotiate a binding legal instrument, it is submitted that, as an interim measure, soft law guidelines should be developed in relation to space tourism in order to provide a framework for the eventual creation of a consolidated and binding legal instrument on all aspects relating to the use and exploration of outer space.
Downloads
References
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Literature
Chatzipanagiotis 2011 Proceedings of the International Institute of Space Law
Chatzipanagiotis M "The impact of liability rules on the development of private commercial human spaceflight" 2011 Proceedings of the International Institute of Space Law: 54th Colloquium on the Law of Outer Space 52-62
Cheng 1995 Air and Space Law
Cheng B "International responsibility and liability for launch activities" 1995 Air and Space Law 297-310
Dempsey 2011 Proceedings of the International Institute of Space Law
Dempsey PS "Liability for damage caused by space objects under international and national law" 2011 Proceedings of the International Institute of Space Law: 54th Colloquium on the Law of Outer Space 165-175
Diederiks-Verschoor Introduction to Space Law
Diederiks-Verschoor IHP An Introduction to Space Law 3rd ed (Kluwer Law Alphen aan den Rijn 1999)
Dugard International Law
Dugard J International Law: A South African Perspective 4th ed (Juta Cape Town 2011)
Failat 2012 Irish Law Journal
Failat YA "Space tourism: A synopsis on its legal challenges" 2012 Irish Law Journal 120-151
Ferreira-Snyman 2012 CILSA
Ferreira-Snyman A "The environmental responsibility of states for space debris and the implications for developing countries in Africa" 2012 CILSA 19-51
Freeland 2010 Melb J Int'l L
Freeland S "Fly me to the moon: How will international law cope with commercial space tourism?" 2010 Melb J Int'l L 1-29
Galvéz and Naja-Corbin 2008 ESA Bulletin
Galvéz A and Naja-Corbin G "Space Tourism: ESA's View on Private Suborbital Spaceflights" 2008 ESA Bulletin Aug 19-25
Hobe 2007 Neb L Rev
Hobe S "Legal aspects of space tourism" 2007 Neb L Rev 377-385
Hobe and Cloppenburg 2004 Proceedings of the International Institute of Space Law
Hobe S and Cloppenburg J "Toward a new aerospace convention? - Selected legal issues of 'space tourism'" 2004 Proceedings of the International Institute of Space Law: 47th Colloquium on the Law of Outer Space 377-383
Hofmann 2007 SAYIL
Hofmann M "Environmental criteria as condition for space activities of non-entities?" 2007 SAYIL 233-246
Ito 2009 Proceedings of the International Institute of Space Law
Ito A "The advent of a new era of commercial space tourism and associated legal problems" 2009 Proceedings of the International Institute of Space Law: 52nd Colloquium on the Law of Outer Space 312-319
Kim 2009 Proceedings of the International Institute of Space Law
Kim DH "Legal problems concerning space debris and Liability Convention" 2009 Proceedings of the International Institute of Space Law: 52nd Colloquium on the Law of Outer Space 210-220
Klabbers Introduction to International Institutional Law
Klabbers J An Introduction to International Institutional Law 2nd ed (Cambridge University Press Cambridge 2009)
Kleiman, Lamie and Carminati Laws of Spaceflight
Kleiman MJ, Lamie JK and Carminati M-V The Laws of Spaceflight: A Guidebook for New Space Lawyers (American Bar Association Chicago 2012)
Loizou 2006 Space Policy
Loizou J "Turning space tourism into commercial reality" 2006 Space Policy 289-290
Lyall and Larsen Space Law
Lyall F and Larsen PB Space Law: A Treatise (Ashgate Surrey 2009)
Masson-Zwaan 2008 Proceedings of the International Institute of Space Law
Masson-Zwaan T "Article VI of the Outer Space Treaty and private human access to space" 2008 Proceedings of the International Institute of Space Law: 51st Colloquium on the Law of Outer Space 536-546
Masson-Zwaan 2010 Air and Space Law
Masson-Zwaan T "Regulation of space tourism in Europe: A role for EU/EASA?" 2010 Air and Space Law 263-272
Masson-Zwaan and Freeland 2010 Acta Astronautica
Masson-Zwaan T and Freeland S "Between heaven and earth: Legal challenges of human space travel" 2010 Acta Astronautica 1597-1607
Neger and Walter "Space Law"
Neger T and Walter E "Space Law - An Independent Branch of the Legal System" in Brünner C and Soucek A (eds) Outer Space in Society, Politics and Law (Springer-Verlag Vienna 2011) 234-245
O'Brien 2004 Proceedings of the International Institute of Space Law
O'Brien Z "Liability for injury, loss or damage to the space tourist" 2004 Proceedings of the International Institute of Space Law: 47th Colloquium on the Law of Outer Space 386-396
Picker 2001/2002 Cardozo L Rev
Picker CB "A view from 40,000 feet: International law and the invisible hand of technology" 2001/2002 Cardozo L Rev 149-219
Ronan-Heath 2011 Proceedings of the International Institute of Space Law
Ronan-Heath C "A new international convention to govern liability in relation to commercial space tourism – is it really necessary?" 2011 Proceedings of the International Institute of Space Law: 54th Colloquium on the Law of Outer Space 202-211
Schrogl "Space and Its Sustainable Uses"
Schrogl K-U "Space and Its Sustainable Uses" in Brünner C and Soucek A (eds) Outer Space in Society, Politics and Law (Springer-Verlag Vienna 2011) 604-618
Sgrosso International Space Law
Sgrosso GC International Space Law (LoGisma Vicchio 2011)
Smith Mail and Guardian
Smith D "Sudan wants Africa to reach for the stars" Mail and Guardian (14 September 2012) 13
Sundahl 2009 Journal of Space Law
Sundahl MJ "The duty to rescue space tourists and return private spacecraft" 2009 Journal of Space Law 163-200
Tronchetti 2011 Proceedings of the International Institute of Space Law
Tronchetti F "Regulating sub-orbital flights traffic: Using air traffic control as a model?" 2011 Proceedings of the International Institute of Space Law: 54th Colloquium on the Law of Outer Space 176-186
Tronchetti "Soft Law"
Tronchetti F "Soft Law" in Brünner C and Soucek A (eds) Outer Space in Society, Politics and Law (Springer-Verlag Vienna 2011) 619-637
Van der Dunk 1991 Proceedings of the International Institute of Space Law
Van der Dunk F "Liability versus responsibility in space law: Misconception or misconstruction?" 1991 Proceedings of the International Institute of Space Law: 34th Colloquium on the Law of Outer Space 363-368
Van Wyk 2008 African Skies
Van Wyk J-A "Overview of the implementation status of the five United Nations treaties on outer space in African countries" 2008 African Skies/Cieux Africains 90-98
Venet "Political Dimension"
Venet C "The Political Dimension" in Brünner C and Soucek A (eds) Outer Space in Society, Politics and Law (Springer-Verlag Vienna 2011) 73-91
Viikari Environmental Element in Space Law
Viikari L The Environmental Element in Space Law - Assessing the Present and Charting the Future (Martinus Nijhoff Leiden 2008)
Welly 2010 Journal of Space Law
Welly ND "Enlightened state interest - A legal framework for protecting the common heritage of mankind from Hardinian tragedy" 2010 Journal of Space Law 273-313
Walter "Privatisation and Commercialisation of Outer Space"
Walter E "The Privatisation and Commercialisation of Outer Space" in Brünner C and Soucek A (eds) Outer Space in Society, Politics and Law (Springer-Verlag Vienna 2011) 493-518
Yan 2011 Proceedings of the International Institute of Space Law
Yan L "Does the Rescue Agreement apply to space tourists" 2011 Proceedings of the International Institute of Space Law: 54th Colloquium on the Law of Outer Space 193-192-201
Yun 2009 J Air L & Com
Yun Z "A legal regime for space tourism: Creating legal certainty in outer space" 2009 J Air L & Com 959-982
Case law
North Sea Continental Shelf Cases (Federal Republic of Germany v Denmark; Federal Republic of Germany v Netherlands) Merits 1969 ICJ Reports 3
Legislation
Australia
Australian Space Activities Act of 1998
South Africa
Space Affairs Act 84 of 1993
United States of America
Commercial Space Launch Act of 2004
International instruments
Agreement Among the Government of Canada, Governments of Member States of the European Space Agency, the Government of Japan, the Government of the Russian Federation, and the Government of the United States of America concerning Cooperation on the Civil International Space Station (1998)
Agreement Governing the Activities of States on the Moon and Other Celestial Bodies (1979) (Moon Agreement)
Agreement on the Rescue of Astronauts, the Return of Astronauts and the Return of Objects Launched into Outer Space (1968) (Rescue Agreement)
Convention for the Unification of Certain Rules relating to International Carriage by Air (1929) (Warsaw Convention)
Convention for the Unification of certain Rules relating to international Carriage by Air (1999) (Montreal Convention)
Convention on Damage caused by Foreign Aircraft to Third Parties on the Surface (1952) (Rome Convention)
Convention on International Civil Aviation (1944) (Chicago Convention)
Convention on Registration of Objects Launched into Outer Space (1975)
Draft Articles on the Responsibility of States for Internationally Wrongful Acts (Report of the International Law Commission, GA 56th Session, Suppl 10 (A/56/10) 29) (2001)
Multilateral Crew Operations Panel's Principles Regarding Processes and Criteria for Selection, Assignment, Training and Certification of ISS (Expedition and Visiting) Crewmembers (2001) (MCOP Agreement)
Treaty on Principles Governing the Activities of States in the Exploration and Use of Outer Space, Including the Moon and Other Celestial Bodies (1967) (Outer Space Treaty)
Treaty on the Prevention of the Placement of Weapons in Outer Space, the Threat or Use of Force against Outer Space Objects (2008)
United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea (1982)
Vienna Convention on the Law of Treaties (1969)
Internet sources
Australian Government: Department of Infrastructure and Regional Development 2013 http://www.infrastructure.gov.au/aviation/international/icao/annexes/
Australian Government: Department of Infrastructure and Regional Development 2013 Annexes to the Chicago Convention http://www.infrastructure.gov.au/aviation/international/icao/annexes/ accessed 4 September 2013
Bigelow Aerospace 2013 http://www.bigelowaerospace.com/sundancer.php accessed Bigelow Aerospace 2013 Next Generation Commercial Space Stations: Sundancer http://www.bigelowaerospace.com/sundancer.php accessed 3 September 2013
Blue Origin 2013 http://www.blueorigin.com/about
Blue Origin 2013 About Blue Origin: Reliable, Cost Effective Human Access to Space http://www.blueorigin.com/about accessed 3 September 2013
Boyle 2002 http://www.nbcnews.com/id/3077960/ns/technology_and_science-space/t/rules-set-space-tourism-trade/Boyle A 2002 Rules Set for Space Tourism Trade: Rascals Need Not Apply for Space Station Flights http://www.nbcnews.com/id/3077960/ns/technology_and_science-space/t/rules-set-space-tourism-trade/ accessed 25 June 2013
Citizens in Space 2013 http://www.citizensinspace.org/2013/08/armadillo-in-hibernation/
Citizens in Space 2013 Armadillo in Hibernation http://www.citizensinspace.org/2013/08/armadillo-in-hibernation/ accessed 3 September 2013
ESA 2013 http://www.esa.int/Our_Activities/Human_Spaceflight/Astronaut_traning_requirements European Space Agency 2013 Astronauts: Human Spaceflight and Exploration - Astronaut Training Requirements http://www.esa.int/Our_
Activities/Human_Spaceflight/Astronaut_traning_requirements accessed 21 June 2013
Excalibur Almaz 2012 http://www.excaliburalmaz.com/0002_History.html
Excalibur Almaz 2012 History of Excalibur Almaz http://www.excaliburalmaz.com/0002_History.html accessed 3 September 2013
Howell 2013 http://www.space.com/19279-eads-astrium.html
Howell E 2013 Astrium: Spaceplane Planned for Space Tourism http://www.space.com/19279-eads-astrium.html accessed 3 September 2013
Rocketplane Global 2013 http://www.rocketplane.com/
Rocketplane Global 2013 The Space Experience http://www.rocketplane.com/ accessed 3 September 2013
Songfacts date unknown http://www.songfacts.com/detail.php?id=15002
Songfacts date unknown Fly me to the Moon by Frank Sinatra http://www.songfacts.com/detail.php?id=15002 accessed 3 April 2013
Spaceport America 2013 http://spaceportamerica.com/
Spaceport America 2013 Welcome to Spaceport America http://spaceportamerica.com/ accessed 3 September 2013
SpaceRef 2002 http://www.spaceref.com/news/viewsr.html?pid=4578
SpaceRef 2002 Principles Regarding Processes and Criteria for Selection, Assignment, Training and Certification of ISS (Expedition and Visiting) Crewmembers http://www.spaceref.com/news/viewsr.html?pid=4578 accessed 21 June 2013
SpaceX 2013 http://www.spacex.com
SpaceX 2013 SpaceX Designs, Manufactures and Launches Advanced Rockets and Spacecraft http://www.spacex.com accessed 3 September 2013
UN Office for Outer Space Affairs date unknown http://www.oosaunvienna.org/oosa/en/SpaceLaw/national/state-index.html
UN Office for Outer Space Affairs date unknown National Space Law Database http://www.oosaunvienna.org/oosa/en/SpaceLaw/national/state-index.html accessed 17 August 2013
UN Office for Outer Space Affairs 2010 http://www.iadc-online.org/index.cgi?item=documents
UN Office for Outer Space Affairs 2010 Space Debris Mitigation Guidelines of the Committee of the Peaceful Uses of Outer Space http://www.iadc-online.org/index.cgi?item=documents accessed 21 June 2013
UNOOSA 2013 http://www.oosa.unvienna.org/oosa/en/Spacelaw/treatystatus/index.html
UNOOSA 2013 Status of International Agreements Relating to Activities in Outer Space http://www.oosa.unvienna.org/oosa/en/Spacelaw/treatystatus/
index.html accessed 3 September 2013
Virgin Galactic 2013 http://www.virgingalctic.com/overview/spaceships
Virgin Galactic 2013 Spaceships: Virgin Galactic's Vehicles http://www.virgingalctic.com/overview/spaceships accessed 2 September 2013
X PRIZE Foundation 2011 http://space.xprize.org/ansari-x-prize
X PRIZE Foundation 2011 Ansari X PRIZE http://space.xprize.org/ansari-x-prize accessed 20 June 2013
XCOR Aerospace 2013 http://xcor.com/lynx/
XCOR Aerospace 2013 About Lynx http://xcor.com/lynx/ accessed 3 September 2013
Published
Issue
Section
License
Copyright (c) 2017 Anel Ferreira-Snyman
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License.
.png){kind=spacer}